



J ■ < •• • • 




liiiiitii.jiiiEjiStvai' 




DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
BUREAU OF EDUCATION 



BULLETIN, 1919, No. 85 



DEVELOPMENT OF 

AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION IN 

SECONDARY SCHOOLS 



By 

H. P. BARROWS 

Professor o( Agricultural Elducation. Oregon 
State Agricultural College 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1920 




viOftpi'r 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION 



BULLETIN. 1919, No. 83 



DEVELOPMENT OF 

AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION IN 

SECONDARY SCHOOLS 



By 



H. P. BARROWS 

Professor o( Agrkullural Education, Oregon 
Stale Agricultural College 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OEFICE 

1920 






ADDITIONAL COPIES 

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY HE PROCUKED FROM 

TUE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

WASHINGTON, D. a 

AT 

15 CENTS PER COPY 
V 



n7 •^ ^« 

OCT li I92Q 



CONTENTS. 



Pago. 

Prefatory statement 4 

Chapter I. — History of agriculture in secondary scliools ."> 

Early development f) 

Secondary schools of agriculture 10 

Chaiiter Il.-State aid for secondary agriculture 20 

Progress in State aid 20 

Jlassachusetts 22 

New York 24 

Pennsylvania 27 

New Jersey 01 

Indiana 33 

Chapter III. — Agriculture as taught in some secondary schools 37 

Fifth District Agricultural and Mechanical School, Monroe, Ga 37 

Baltimore County Agricultural High School, Sparks, Md 42 

Bristol County Agi-iculturnl Scliool, Segregansct, Mass 40 

Agricultural department of Hannibal (N. Y.) High School 49 

Agricultural department of Hopkins Academy, Hadley, Mass 51 

Department of agriculture. State Normal School, Platteville, Wis 54 

Berry School, Mount Berry, Floyd County, Ga 62 

Manas.sas Industrial School for the Training of Colored Youth, 

IMauassas, Va G7 

Chapter IV. — Federal aid for vocational agriculture 71 

History of the movement 71 

The Smith-Hughes Act 72 

Chapter V.- — Training teachers of agriculture 78 

Development of agricultural teaching 78 

A work for colleges 81 

Land-grant colleges and the preparation of teachers of agriculture 83 

University of California, Division of Agricultural Education 85 

Cornell Universitjs Department of Rural Education 87 

Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas 90 

Oregon State Agricultural College 92 

Practical phases of training 93 

Chapter VI. — Summary of study 100 

Relation of secondary to collegiate agriculture 100 

Problems of vocational agriculture 101 

Subsidizing agricultural education 103 

Bibliography of agriculture in secondary schools lOG 

3 



PREFATORY STATEMENT. 



This bulletin represents u thesis presented by the lute Hurry Percy 
liarrows to the faculty of Georj^e Washington University in 1910 for 
the (le.irree of doctor of pliilosophy. It furnishes an historic rei'ord 
that should be very helpful in the future de\ elopment of instruction 
in ajrriculture in this country. Since secondary instruction in ajj^ri- 
culture was developed first in the institutions that later became the 
c()lle<;es of agriculture, this paper covers in a masterly way the early 
development of collegiate agriculture. 

Soon after the manuscript for this bulletin was presented for i)ub- 
lication the author suflered a severe attack of influenza, which was 
followed by pneumonia and later resulted in his death at Berkeley, 
Calif., May H, 1020. It should be understood, therefore, that tho 
author was not permitted to examine the printer's proof nor to make 
such changes in the text as frequently suggest themselves upon read- 
ing the printed copy. 

C. I). Jakvis, 
Specialist in Agricultural luhication, 

U. aS. Bujcau of Education, 

Jul;/ 1',, lf)20. 
4 



DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION 
IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



Chapter L 
HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



EARLY DEVELOPMENT. 

Lines not clearly draion. — It is not easy to trace the development of 
aijriculture in the secondary or high schools as such, because in the 
earlier days of our educational history distinctions were not made be- 
tween elementary, secondary, and collegiate instruction as they are 
made now. The development of much of the agricultural instruction 
in the agricultural colleges should be classed as secondary agricul- 
ture when judged by present-d^iy standards. In establishing the land- 
grant colleges there was not so much the intention to establish schools 
of college rank as to give some direct aid to the farmers. The dis- 
cussions of the Morrill bill in Congress bring out the fact that many 
of those who voted for it did not realize that they were voting to 
establish colleges, just as some of the Members of Congress who voted 
for the Smith-Hughes Act thought they were voting to aid the ele- 
mentary schools. A consideration of the early development of second- 
ary agricidture must be of necessity a review of the general effort to 
improve agriculture by means of education. 

Agricultural societies.^ — Probably the first organized effort to im- 
prove agriculture was by means of agricultural societies and fairs. 
(ieorge AVashington and Benjamin Franklin were members of the 
first society for the promotion of agriculture, which was organized in 
Philadelphia in 1775. About the same time a similar society was or- 
ganized in South Carolina, which proposed, among other things, to 
establish the first experimental farm in the United States. In 1792 
a small volume representing the transactions of the New York Society 
for the Promotion of Agriculture was published. This society, or- 
ganized in 1791, was followed by a similar organization in Connecti- 
cut in 1794. 

The establishment of fairs and exhibits was an outgrowth of the 
woik of the agricultural societies and the desire of men going to ex- 

' See Dabiiey, C. W., Af^ricuUural education. In Monograph No. 12. Butler's Mono- 
graphs in Education. New Yorlc, American liook Co., 1910. Pp. 5-8. 



G DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTUUCTIOX. 

]HMiso in ini[)()rtin^^ improved types of farm animals from Europe, to 
('xliil)it their importations. Tlie first fair was hekl in Massaehusetts 
in 1804. In 1809 the Coliiml)ian Agricultural Society, compo.sed 
mostly of farmers in ^faryland and Vir^^inia in the vicinity of the 
National Capital, Avas or<rani/.e(l to fuither agriculture by means of 
fairs. 

From the l)eginnin<^^ the various State and local agricultural so- 
cieties and fair associations have been strong factors in the direct 
improvement of agriculture and in securing additional means lor 
imi)roving the lot of the fftrmer. There have been, however, several 
movements of a national nature, -which have had a wide-spreading 
influence. Most notable of these are tlie National (Grange (Patrons 
of Husbandry), organized in 1SG7, and becoming a national society 
in 1873, and the Farmers' Alliance. While these organizations 
spread their influence chiefly in the North and West, their place was 
filletl in the South by such organizations as the Brothers of Freedom 
aiul the Farmers' Educational and Cooperative Union. 

'Many of the societies have been instrumental in securing national 
and State aid for the promotion of agricultural instruction in the 
schools. 

Development of the laiid-grant colleges? — The first proposal to 
have the Federal (ioverninent aid in the training of farmers was 
made by Keprcsentative Justin S'. Morrill, of Vermont, in 1857. Due 
to the able plea of Mr. Morrill in behalf of the farmer, and to his 
skill in parliament^iry procedure, the bill passed the House by a 
narrow majority, but was held up in the Senate. The bill finally 
l)assed both House and Senate in 1859, only to be vetoed by President 
Buchanan. Soon after the Thirty-seventh Congress met, in Decem- 
ber, ISGl, the bill Avas again introduced and finally passed both 
Houses. On July 2, 1862, President Lincoln signed the bill which 
has been since kno"wn as the Moirill Act. 

This act provided for Federal aid as a .stimulus to State aid in 
establishing colleges of agricultui^e and mechanic arts. Inasnuich as 
the Federal aid given was in the form of grants of public land, the 
inslitutions established have become known as the land-grant colit^ges. 

Agricultural colleges had already been established in the following 
States: New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Connec^ticut, and Mary- 
liiml. before the land-grant act was passed. In other States, notably 
Kan.sas, Iowa, Wisconsin, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire, de- 
partments of agriculture were established in conncx'tion with existing 
institutions, which departments afterwards developed into colleges 
which secured the l)enefit of the land-grant act. Such institutions 

' Sco Knndi'l, I. L., Kcilcrnl Aid for Vocniloiinl IMucntlon. Cnrnogle FounJiition for 
tbc AdvaucoineDt ot Tea<.-blui;. liuUctiu Nu. 10, 1017. I'p. 3-oii. 



AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 7 

as Harvard, Yale, and the Universities of Vir^jjinia and Geori,na made 
some advancement in agriculture as a science before the Fedei-ul- 
aidod agricultural colleges were established. 

The act of 1862 was soon accepted by the legislatures of the States 
then loyal to the Federal Government, and, after the war, it was ex- 
tended to and accepted by the States out of the Union during the 
war. Many of the colleges established were not colleges when 
judged by present-day standards for other lines. They were not 
strictly agricultural and mechanical colleges in that they did not 
confine their v\ork to the training of farmers and mechanics. A pe- 
rusal of the curricula of those colleges of earlier days shows that 
some of them did not approach very closely to practical agricultural 
training. Nevertheless, they performed a needed function in extend- 
ing public education of a more or less special nature to a greater 
number of the common people, performing for a relatively small 
number the function performed now by rural high schools to great 
numbers of farm boys and girls. Yet a relatively large number did 
not receive training in agriculture and did not return to the farm, 
hence in a large measure these institutions failed in filling the mission 
for wliich they were established. The fact that the}^ were appreci- 
ated, however, is shown by the increased appropriations made for 
these institutions. No sooner had the colleges become established 
than Senator Morrill and his colleges began a campaign for addi- 
tional funds. Their efforts were unsuccessful, however, until 1890, 
when the so-called second Morrill Act was passed. This act provided 
for each college then established an additional sum of $15,000 for 
that 3^ear and an annual increase of that amount thereafter of 
it'LOOO until the annual appropriation should reach $25,000 for each 
State. These funds were further supplemented in 1908 by what is 
known as the Nelson amendment, v.hich provided for an additional 
sum of $15,000 to be given that year and additional sums of $5,000 
for four succeeding years; united, the total appropriation from the 
Federal Government would be $50,000 each year. 

The agricultural exferhiujit stations.— Ai the time several of the 
first agricultural colleges were established provision was made for 
investigational work to go hand in hand with the instruction of 
students. The act providing for the establishment of the Maryland 
Agricultural College also provided that the college should establish a 
model farm \ipon Avhich a series of experiments might be conducted. 
It may be remembered that the early settlers of this country spent 
a great deal of time and effort as individuals in attempting to secure 
crops suited to the New World. They were very willing to let the 
State do this woHv. A great deal of the foundation for real investi- 
gational work was done by Dr. Samuel W. Johnson, who was ap- 



8 PEVELOPMKNT OF ACHICl'LTritAL INSTRUCTION. 

p(»int(Ml professor of afrriciiltural chcniistry in Yale. Many of tlio 
early leaders in research in airriciiltural science were Dr. Johnson's 
students. 

Althou<:h many of the States esta})lishe(l experiment stations in 
connection Avith the a«^ricultural coile«;es, tlie *i^reatest impetus was 
pven this movement by the passape of the Hatch Act in 1887. This 
act provided $15,000 each year of funds from the sale of public lands 
toward the establishment and support of an agricultural experiment 
station in each State. 

The Hatch fund was supjdemented further in lOOO. by the passajrc 
of the Adams Act. This act appropriated an annual sum of $5,000, 
with an increase of $2,000 each year until the total sum per year 
shoidd be $80,000 for each State. The individual States now ap- 
|u-<)priate more money each year than does the National (jovernment 
foi- research work. 

The I lilted States Department of Agriculture.^— ijQov^iQ Washiu*;- 
tcn. as President, favored congiessional aid for agriculture, and so 
recommended it, but Congress at that time did nothing by way of 
dii-ect aid for the farmer. In 1830 the Patent Commissioner, Henry 
L. Ellsworth, received a considerable quantity of seeds and plants 
from representatives of the Government abroad and distributed 
them to progressive farmers, in this country. Although this work 
was begun without authority or financial aid, it lead to an appropria- 
tion of $1,000, made for such purpose in 1839. The Patent ()fii«e 
soon began collecting and dissemiimting statistics and other informa- 
tion as well as seeds. The work grew in this office until, in ISfi-i, 
the same year the agricultural colleges were established, a separate 
department was organized, with a commissioner of agriculture at 
its head. In 1889 this department was raised to the first rank in 
the executive branch of the Government, and was put under the 
direction of a Secretary of Agriculture, a Cabinet member. 

The Department of Agriculture in its phenomenal growth has 
without doubt branched out into lines of work undreamed of by 
those who worked so hard for its establishment. Its work is chiefly 
along thiee lines, viz: Research, regulatory supervision, and direct 
in.st ruction. From the beginning the department has done a great 
deal in the way of directing investigation as well as to direct tiie 
agricultural research carried on in the States with Federal funds. 
As Government control of agricultural production and marketing 
has increase<1, the police duties of the de|)artment have been added 
upon. Through direct contact of its corps of trained specialists and 
by extensive correspondence and j^ublications, the department has 



' Si-e (JrcnthouKe, C. 11.. Ulstorlcnl Sketch of the United States Department of ARrl.-iil- 
turi;. U. y. ncpnitmcDt of AgricuUure, DivlBlon of Publications. Bulletin 3, 2d Kev., I!tu7. 



AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 9 

aided the agricultural colleges in the direct education of tlie people. 
It has done a great deal to aid the colleges and schools of lower 
grade in their problems of instruction as well as researcli. 

A (/iu cultural extension icork. — Largely' as a result of the work of 
the experiment stations and the Department of Agriculture, a begin- 
ning was made in this country toward developing agriculture as a 
science. A great mass of scientific material pertaining to agricul- 
ture has been accumulated, while the most valuable resources of the 
countr}^ were being wasted by poor methods of farming. The agri- 
cultural colleges reached a relatively small niunber of students, and a 
large percentage of them did not return to the farm. Early in the 
history of the colleges, howe\'er, an effort was made to take their in- 
formation directly to the farmer. Farmers' institutes^ developed 
along with agricultural societies and fairs. It became evident in 
time that a more comprehensive program and a better organized plan 
were essential in reaching the men and women on the farm. Once 
again Federal aid was sought and secured in what is known as the 
Smith-Lever Act. This act, j^assed in 1914, provides for Federal aid 
to State agricultural colleges for agricultural extension work in co- 
operation with the United States Department of Agriculture. The 
money was not to be spent upon resident instruction, but provided 
for various means of instruction away from the college. At the be- 
ginning $10,000 for each State was appropriated, a total of $480,000. 
This smn increases year by year until an annual appropriation of 
$4,100,000 is reached. This sum is divided among the 'States in the 
proportion that rural populations bear to the entire rural population 
of the country. The States must meet the Federal appropriation 
dollar for dollar. 

Inasmuch as this extension work has reached a large number of 
people and has secured direct results, it has been on the whole very 
Avell received. In the extension service an organization has been 
effected under the direction of the Department of Agriculture through 
which additional funds may be spent effectively as a Avar measure in 
increasing efficiency in the production and consumption of food. 

It has been the experience of many extension workers in agricul- 
ture and home economics that time and money Avere more effectively 
spent upon boys and girls than upon mature farmers and their wives. 
In many cases it was found to be easier to reach the fathers and motli- 
oi's through the boys and girls ; hence the boys' and girls' club move- 
ment and other forms of extension Avork among young people have 
l)een giA^en an increasing amount of attention. There is a strong 
tendency at the present time to link such Avork as closely as possible 
Avith the public school system. 

1 See History and Status of Farmers' Institutes in the United States and Canada. U. S, 
Department of Agriculture. Office of Experiment Stations. Bulletin 79. 



10 DHMSLOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAI. INSTRUCTION. 

SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE. 

Schools affllmted with agricultvral colleges. — Attention Ims been 
called to the fact that lines have not been closely drawn between apri- 
culturo of a secondary prade and collep:iatc aeri'icultiire in the laiid- 
«;raiit colleges. Some of the institutions, however, have seen fit to 
draw the line closely from the standpoint of administration and have 
oriranized secondary schools and colleges in the same institution. 
Minnesota established the tirst school of agriculture in lbS8. This 
sc'hool was established on the campus of the college of agriculture, 
v> hich is a part of the State university, at St. Anthony Park, between 
Miiincapolis and St. Paul. Although the buildings, equii)ment, and 
faculty of the agricultural college are used in the instruction of the 
secondary students, the school is maintained as a separate institution. 
Almost from the beginning the scliool has i)een successful and i)<>p- 
ular. It has furnished the people of Minnesota the type of education 
they have demanded to the extent that until very recently it has over- 
shadowed the college of agriculture in the same institution. Al- 
though Minnesota established a similar school at Crooltston in 1908 
and another one at Xorris in 1910, there Iras been a demand for sec- 
ondary agriculture in the high schools of Minnesota unequaled in any 
other State. 

Following the lead of ^Minnesota, in 189G Nebraska organized a 
similar school in connection with the college of agriculture of the 
State university at Lincoln. Over half of the States have since 
organized special schools in connection with the agricultural col- 
leges. In some States these schools use the same eiiuipment and 
teaching force as the college, following the example of the first 
school organized in Minnesota. In other States the schools have a 
.separate organization in a different part of the State. Such is the 
case in California at the University Farm School at Davis. This 
school, however, serves the university proper, in giving the cour.'^es 
wiiich demand farm practice to students of college grade in addi- 
tion to giving courses of a secondary grade. 

I>iMri(f and county agricultural schools. — The independent schools 
of agricultuie established through State aid may be c-la.ssed largely 
as county .schools and district schools. The districts served, how- 
ever, vary from the congre.ssional district to an indeterminate dis- 
trict which means that the school may serve the State at large. 

Alabama was the first State to establish, a system of agricultuial 
schools. In 1HS9 the State provided for a school in each of the 
nine congressional di.strict.s. At each school a branch experiment 
station was established under the direction of the State College of 
Agriculture. Although these schools have not given coui-ses of a 
distinctly vocational nature, they have furnished some practical 



AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 11 

"SYork alono; with an academic ti*aiiiiii<^ to a great number of young 
jjeople Avho otller^yise would not have received instruction beyond 
the elementary school. 

Following the lead of her sister State, Georgia established agri- 
cultural schools in each of her 11 congressional districts in 190G, 
These schools have had much the same service as those in Alabama. 
Wherever they liave been in cluirge of agricultural men there has 
been a strong leaning toward agricultural education, but in a num- 
ber of cases the term " agricultural school " has been a misnomer, as 
practical agriculture has been subordinated to academic work. This 
criticism applies even more strongly to the congressional district 
agricultural schools established in Virginia in 1908. In most 
cases these schools have been very weak agricultural departments 
added to ordinary high schools, which until very recently have made 
little attempt to adapt their curricula to the needs of the rural 
community. 

In 1909 Arkansas established four agricultural schools, each to 
serve a district comprising approximately one-fourth of the State. 
These schools Avere established upon a bigger, broader basis than the 
schools wdiich serve a smaller district in other Southern States. Tliey 
have been from the beginning more nearly real agricultural schools 
than an}' of the special schools of agriculture in the South. They 
have become ambitious in the growth, hov>-ever, and at times tliere 
appears a rivalry betw^een these schools and the State college of 
agriculture. Oklahoma also established schools to serve a large dis- 
trict, but as these scliools have not had the support given the Arkan- 
sas schools, they have not prospered so well. 

Wisconsin led out in the county agricultural school idea in 1901, 
when funds Avere provided for count}- schools of agriculture and 
domestic economy at Wausau and JMenomonie. Since then such 
schools have been established in many other counties. County agri- 
cultural schools have later been established in several States. 

The following States have established schools to serve the State 
at large or an indeterminate district: California, New York, Ne- 
braska, Vermont, Colorado, and Pennsylvania. In Nebraska the 
State agricultural school at Curtis has definite connection with 
tlie State university. The State agricultural school at Fort Lewis, 
Colo., is also a part of the State agricultural college. In California, 
while the university farm school at Davis is a definite part of the 
State university, the California Polytechnic Scliool at San Luis 
Obispo is an independent State institution. 

Public high schools. — Although it is a relatively simple matter to 
trace the development of agricultural schools as such, it is very diffi- 
cult to secure definite and accurate information concernin"- asri- 



12 



DKVKLOPMKNT OK ACRICULTTItAL INSTRUCTION. 



culture as tau^lit in tlio onlimirv liijih schools. The instruction may 
vary from the a|)|)lication of courses in hotany or chemistry in the 
direction of agriculture, or the use of an elementary textbook for a 
portion of a year, to the full-fledj^ed department of a<^riculture <;ivin«; 
a four years' course, taUinj^ m(»re than half of the entire time of the 
student. In some cases these departments employ more than one 
teacher, have better e<|uipment and offer more coiii])]ct(' coui'ses than 
so-called aj^ricultural schools. One of the marke<l tendencies in 
recent progress in a«(ricultural education is the fretting away from 
the idea that a consideration of secon<lary ajrriculture is necessarily 
a consideration of a special school of a<^riculture. Classilications of 
institutions into agricultural courses may mean little as to the nature 
and extent of the agriculture taught. Agriculture has not dominated 
in the curriculum of tiie majority of secondary agricultural .schools 
established in the past. A mere statistical study may have some 
value in showing j^rogress made, but it will need a givat deal of ex- 
planation based upon first-hand studj- to show the real nature of the 
work given. 

A few years ago there was a tendency to judge the progress in 
agricultural education by the number of institutions ofi'ering courses 
Mild the number of students taking the work. While much of the 
superficial teaching which went under the name of agricultural in- 
struction has been eliminated and real progress made in the charac- 
ter of the work given, the apparent decline in interest shown in the 
following statistics is due largely to a more careful incpiiry into 
work reported as agriculture. 

The following is from the report of the Commissioner of Educa- 
tion for the year ending June 30, 1013:^ 

Acoordinp to the most reliable infornialion obtainable there wore about 'J,:{()0 
high schools In the United States teaching agriculture in 1912-13. This in- 
dicates an increase of about 300 over the previous year. This number includes 
47 State agrleullural schools, 40 district agricultural schools, G7 county ngri- 
(iiilural schools, IS agricultural deimrtments of high schools, and the remain- 
ing ordinary .schools giving cours4's in agriculture. 

The following tables were compiled from reports made to the Com- 
missioner of Education showing the progress in the next two years: 

Report for lOtfi. 



Institutions, 



I'ublic hieli .scIkkiI.s.. 
I'rivulo hlfjii schools. 



T«>(«1. 



Courses. 



Agriculture. 
....do 



Schools 
reporting. 



1,553 
124 



1,677 



Number of students. 



Boys. 



21,702 
1,767 



23,469 



Oiris. Total 



10,,tl9 
679 



10,898 



32,021 
2,346 



34,367 



> Chapter IX, TrogrcBS of Agricultural Kducation, pp. 213-214, 



AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 
Report for 1915. 



13 



Instilulions. 



Courses. 



Schools. 
R'porltng. 



Number of students. 



Boys. 



Girls. 



Total. 



Piiljlic hi?h school.^. 
l'ri\alo high schools 



Total. 



Agriculture. 
do 



4,665 
25.3 



61,677 
2,579 



39,0.'^l 
l,8tU 



90,708 
4,410 



4,918 



40, 802 



These statistics were compiled from general data sent by the 
stliools to the Bureau of Education. In the spring of 1916 the bureau 
attempted to gather more complete and definite information concern- 
ing the teaching of agriculture in the public high schools and in 
s])ecial agricultural schools of secondary grade. The following is a 
brief summary of the schools reporting : ^ 

Ayriciilture in secondary schools, 1915-16. 

Number of public high schools reporting teaching agriculture 2, 17.") 

Established before 1901 19 

Established from 1901 to 1905 83 

Established from 1906 to 1910 413 

Established since 1910 1, 710 

Itepoi'ting teaching agriculture primarily: 

As informational subject 1, 521 

As vocational subject 560 

rvuniber of persons teaching agriculture: 

Male 2,007 

Female .247 

Number of these with any special training in agriculture, includ- 
ing those with full four-j'ear agricultural college courses, short- 
term courses, normal school agricultural courses, summer 

courses, etc 1, 021 

Number of students of secondary grade studying agriculture : 

Boys 24, 743 

(Jirls 16. 312 

Number of schools iising school land for instructional purposes 392 

Number teaching through home-project method 837 

Number in which instruction consists wholly of classroom work 416 

Number in which instruction consists of classroom work, with labora- 
tory exercises and observation on neighboring farms 1,004 

Number of special secondai-y agricultural schools supported iu whole 

or in part by the States 68 

Total cost of maintenance $766, 000 

I'dtal number of teachers : 

JIale 276 

Female '^ 140 

' from Report of Commissioner of Educatiou for the year ended June 30, 1916, pp. 
237-38. 



14 '(KVlil.Ol'MKNT OF AGKKILTUKAL INSTKL'tTlOX. 

Total mimlu-r of puijils: 
Elrmciitary — 

M!ih> cin 

Kt'inale -i'*^ 

Socoudury — 

Mulo ^ 3. sm 

I-Vuinlo -. 408 

This summary docs not include special schools of a^jriculture 
maintained by the State colleges of agriculture on the colle<^'e cam- 
pus. Schools of this type are maintained Ijy the State agricultural 
colleges of California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Mississippi, Ne- 
l)i-aska, ^lontana, North Carolina, North Dakota, and Washington 
(school of science). Agricultural courses of secondary grade are 
given to special students in 20 otlier State colleges of agriculture. 

In a publication^ which gives the final returns from this investi- 
gation, 2,0S1 public high schools are reported as giving instruc- 
tion in agriculture in 1915-16. Of these, 2.250 schools gave in- 
formation as to the character of the work given. Only 2,1GG of 
this numl)er, however, were really teaching agriculture in a serious 
way. To understand the nature of the agriculture taught in these 
s<*hools, we may consider the following facts : 

(1) Date of introduction: Less than 1 per cent of these schools 
^ taught agriculture before 1000, and less than H per cent intro- 
' duced the subject l^etween 1900 and 1005. Over 97.G per cent of the 

.schools introduced the subject since 1905, and 78.5 per cent since 
1910. 

(2) Nature of instruction: The .schools were asketl to indicate 
v.'hether they were teaching agriculture with a vocational aim as 
definite preparation for farming,- as information about agricidture, 
or for general cultural purposes. As many of the schools reported 
that they were teaching agriculture for two or all three reason-?, 
it is evident that they did not have a distinct purpose in their in- 
struction. Although 25 2)er cent of the schools reported the chief 
aim as being vocational, the character of the work indicates that 
many of the teachers have little conception of the meaning of vora- 
tional training. The instruction in many oases was confined to 
classroom only, or supplemented with some laboratory work. Some 
teachers thought their textbook instruction was vocational, as their 
students lived on farms. The sunmiary of replies shows that 20 per 
(ent of the schools confined their in.struction to classroom work; 
50 per cent supplement the classroom instruction with laboratory 
e.xercises and observation trips to the farms: ajid only 30 per cent 
combine classroom instruction and laboratory work with practical 

> Monahan, A. C, and Dyo, C. II. InstltuUona in tho United States siving Instruction 
In AKriculturc, 1015-10. Hurcnu of Kducntlon. BulIcUn. 1017, No. 31. 



AGRKU^LTURE IN SECONDARY SC'HOOLS. 16 

farm ^vork. Three lnuidred and thirty-seven vvero using the home- 
project i)lan, aithoiioh in only 261 schools was the home work given 
supervision by the instructor in agriculture. The schools report- 
ing, however, did not include many of the State-aided schools which 
ar€ using this plan. Eighteen per cent of the schools reported school 
land for agricultural purposes. Of these schools 184, or about one- 
third of the number, had less than two acres. 

(3) Training of teachers: There is a close relation between the 
nature of the instruction and the training of the teachers. Only 
15 per cent of the teachers in the 2,1GG reporting were graduates 
of agricultural colleges. In addition to these, 21 per cent had some 
training in agriculture in colleges or normal schools. In some cases 
this work was taken only in summer school or as short winter 
courses. 

Private high schools. — Since the time that secondary schools were 
first developed in this country many of tliese schools have been 
organized outside the city with private funds. At such of these 
schools as have owned farms upon which students have lived away 
from home there has been more or less direct relation between the 
instruction of the school and farm life. Definite instruction in 
agriculture Avas inaugurated in a few of these schools before it v\'as 
attempted in the public high schools. In a few cases the agricul- 
tural instruction has been of a vocational character from the begin- 
ning, as the instruction has been based largely upon the work of the 
farm. In placing the agTiculture of our public schools now upon 
a vocational basis we may learn much from these private schools 
Avhich have been worlring for a number of years upon problems 
connected with the use of land in agricultural instruction. We have 
learned considerable from such schools as the National Farm School, 
at Doylestown. Pa., the Baron de Hirsch School, at Woodbine, 
N. J., and the Berry School, near Rome, Ga. Where these schools 
have had a real vocational aim they have had a decided advantage 
in making their work practical, as the students are living on the 
school farm throughout the year. 

It is veiy difficult to secure accurate statistics concerning private 
schools and especial!}" to grade the Avork done. Although a number 
of private colleges and State institutions other than the Federal - 
aided colleges are giving courses in agriculture, in few cases is the 
instruction given of more than secondary grade when judged by 
the standards of the land-grant colleges. As the equipment and 
instruction for college agriculture is so expensive, fcAv colleges 
attempt to compete with the Federal-aided institutions in college 
courses. Only 18 of these colleges and 100 secondary schools 
reoorted the nature of the work to the Bureau of Education in 



If) DKVELOPMKNT OF ACItKlLTl ItAI. INSTKl'CTION. 

1J>H;. Tlicso schools rcportiMl :\:.VX\ studiMils taking; roiirsi's in ajrri- 
culture. A iiunibcr of schools havin<; u rt'latively lart;e iiuiiiIm r of 
students did not report the numhcr of agricultural students. 

Normal hcIiooJs. — Xornial-sdiool traininjr in a*rriculture is mostly 
associated with elementary a«;riculture, as in most cases it is train- 
ings for elementary schools. Methods of teachinj^ most subjects in 
nornuil schools are often superior to those used in the hij^h schools. 
As the teaching of agriculture is not an exception to this rule, we 
may very well give some attention in pages to follow to normal- 
school instruction in this subject. At this time we shall consider 
briefly the develoimient of normal-school instruction in agiiculture 
in the United States. 

Many of the States have made agriculture a re(piired subject in 
rural schools without provitling for special training of teachers in 
that line. As a result, agriculture as taught in many of the ele- 
juentary schools was a very perfunctory perusal of a textbook which 
in most cases was adapted neither to the pupils nor the section in 
which they lived. To overcome this difliculty some States have 
recpiired agriculture as a subject for examination for tlie teacher's 
certificate, others have made special ert'ort to provide for the training 
of teachers, some have done both, as will be noted in tiie data 
following: 

Legislative enactment has made the teaching of agriculture a re- 
(piirement in all common schools, or at least in rural schools, in each 
of the following States: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, (ieorgia, In- 
tliana, Iowa, Louisiana, Mississip})i, North Carolina, Xorth Dakota, 
Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Texas, West Virginia, Wisconsin, 
and Wyoming. Agriculture is one of the subjects for examination for 
teachers' certificates in the following States: Alal)ama, Arkansas, 
California, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, I>ou- 
isiana, Michigan, Xorth Dakota (altei-native), Mississippi, Missouri, 
Nebraska, Xew Mexico, Xorth Carolina, Ohio, Wisconsin, Oklahoma, 
South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia (alternative). West Vir- 
ginia and Wyoming. About half the States have had printed outlines 
of courses in elementary agriculture, prepared either l)y the State 
agricultural college or the State department of public instruction. 
Up to the present time approximately 75 texts in elementary agricul- 
ture have been prepared. Hut with all the aid given teachers in .serv- 
ice, nothing has taken the i)lace of specific training as a part of the 
teacher training course. The following will indicate that some States 
have .sensed their <hity in training tea( hers for rural ."Schools: Maine, 
Oklahoma, and Teimes.see re(juire instruction in agriculture in ail 
State nornutl schools. Instruction in agriculture is a !C(|uisite for 
State aid to normal training in the high .schools of Iowa, Mis.souri, 



AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 17 

and Nebraska. Nebraska also requires her normal schools to estab- 
lisli a course for rural teachers, including agriculture, household 
economy, and rural sociology. Kansas provides State aid for agri- 
cultural instruction in high school normal training classes, while 
clementar}' agriculture is required in the course of study in the county 
normal classes in Michigan, Nebraska, and Oregon. 

In most cases the instruction involves subject matter only, and for 
the most part there is but one course in agriculture, and that is of an 
elementary nature. Some schools have been more recently paying 
more attention to tlie pedagogy of the subject and have been de- 
veloping courses involving subject matter of a more specialized char- 
acter. In a recent study ^ made by the United States Bureau of 
Education about half of the 114 schools reporting required agricul- 
ture of all students, the amount of required work ranging from only 
20 hours, in the case of the New Jersey State Normal School, at 
NeAvark, to 190 hours required in tlie State normal school at Spear- 
fish, S. Dak. The first district State normal school, at Kirksville, 
Mo., offered 1,344 hours of agriculture. The author, having visited 
this school, can testify as to the higli standard of the work offered. 

As a rule the normal schools have confined their efforts to training 
teachers of elementary agriculture, but in a few cases the department 
of agriculture in connection Avith normal schools have become ambi- 
tious to compete with the agricultural colleges in training teachers 
for secondary schools. This has meant duplication of extensive farm 
and school equipment. In a few cases normal schools and agricul- 
tural colleges have cooperated in the training of secondary teachers, 
the normal schools or school of education given the professional 
training and the agricultural colleges the technical training. 

/Schools for Negroes and Indians. — It is difficult to classify schools 
for Negroes according to grade of work done. When measured by 
standards set for schools for white people, the colleges for Negroes 
give instruction in agriculture mostly of secondary grade. In 1915-16 
tliere were 17 of these institutions Avith a total of 2,053 students 
taking regular four-5^ear courses in agriculture. Ten of these in- 
stitutions serve also as State normal schools. In addition to these 
schools, 67 other institutions for Negroes above elementary grade 
reported agriculture as a part of the curriculum and 43 reported 
courses in gardening. Much of the agriculture as well as gardening 
given in the secondary schools is of a decidedly elementary character. 
Although the classroom instruction of both colleges and secondary 
schools for Negroes may not measure up to standards for institutions 
for white people, in many cases the colored schools have led in the 

' Institutions In the United States giving Instruction in agriculture, 1915-16, U. S. 
Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1917, No. 34, pp. C 8. 

l.'54070°— 20 2 



18 DEMCLOrMKNT OF A(JUIC"ULTUil.U. INSTRUCTION. 

:uii(»unt an<l cluinu'tcr of practical traiiiinp jrivoii. This is especially 
true of such iustitiitions as llainptoii Normal and Industrial In- 
stitute at Hampton, \'a., and TuoUe^rcc Institute at Tuske^ec, Ala. 
Althotiirh education has been unfortunately associated with Uie idea 
of emancipation from labor in the minds of many Xegrocs, in 
tliese institutions the industrial spirit predominates. Students who 
will not work are not allowed to remain at the school Combining 
farniin<r and industrial interests with th(^ s<'hool, the students may 
work their way throu«j:h s<-hool in a lar«:;e measure, bavin;; ^vork 
which fits well in the course of study pursued. 

Kstablished soon after the Civil War by Col. Armstron*;;, and since 
his death conductetl until 191i) under (he able leadership of the late 
Dr. 11. B. Frissell, Hampton has been a wonderful factor in develop- 
in;r Ne<;ro leadership. It was in this in.stitution that Booker T. 
Washington secured the inspiration and training v>hich enabled him 
to develop at Tnskegee a larger one. In both institutions training for 
agriculture and the industries predominate. At Hampton the in- 
structors are mostly white people, while at Tuskegee tlie teachers are 
of the colored race. At both institutions older students are used as 
assistants in the training of the younger ones. As an eiample of 
tho pi-actical and helpful character of the instruction given, the 
following account of a course in dairying at Hampton is given: 

'J'he well-e(piipped dairy is run as a conmiercial creamery making 
the butter used at the institution from milk obtained from two 
large dairy hei*ds maintained by the school. There were 12 students 
in the class, each of wliom was given two months' practical work in 
the creamery, one month as assistant and one month as foreman. As 
it took but two men to do the work, it was arranged for a new student 
to enter each month, so that the dairy was always in charge of a 
student with one month's experience. The student entering one 
montli as assistant became foreman the next month when the man 
over him left. The plan worked well in developing initiative, re- 
sourcefulness, and self-confidence. The students interviewed felt 
competent to take charge of a small dairy when they left tlie sclmol. 
The students in cliarge of the dairy at the time the school was visited 
in IIJIT) were both Indians. 

There has been cxjnsiderable development in vocational agriculture 
in some of the Indian .schools maintained under direction of the 
Dkj)artnient of the Interior. Such schools as the United States 
Indian Industrial School at Carlisle, Pa., were given practical instruc- 
lit)ii in agriculture before i)ublic higli schools were making very much 
pn;gress in that direction. Kecently tlie Bureau of Indian Alfairs 
has been making an effort to reorganize and standardize the agricul- 
tural instruction <riven to Indian students. 



AGRICULTURE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 19 

Schools for delinquents. — Industrial education has been so closely 
associated with schools for delinquents in the past that even now 
when the term "industrial school" is used many people think of a 
reform school. All of these schools which have been located on 
farms have required farm work of the inmates. In line of progress 
in the education of delinquent youth, over half of the State reform 
schools have now provided for definite classroom instruction to 
accompany the farm work of the students. Such schools as the one 
located on Thompsons Island, in Massachusetts, have been pioneers 
in vocational agriculture and have pointed the way for public 
schools to follow. 

Definite agricultural instruction is becoming a part of the educa- 
tional work of a number of State prisons. In 1914 the author as- 
sisted in the introduction of agriculture into the California State 
prison at San Quentin. Before the year was over nearly 300 students 
Avere enrolled. Correspondence courses in agriculture prepared by 
the college of agriculture of the State university were made the basis 
for the instruction given. The men organized an agricultural club 
which met weekly for a general session, usually under the direction 
ot a specialist from the university. The general session was made up 
of sections, each pursuing a special course. As some garden work 
was done at the prison and a herd of swine kept, some of the work was 
made practical. A number of agricultural boolcs and large numbers 
of bulletins were added to the library, which was used extensively for 
reference purposes. Illustrative material, including colored charts, 
mounted pictures, and lantern slides, were prepared by the students, 
some of whom showed marked ability in this line of work. In some 
States the agricultural instruction is given as a regular phase of 
prison instruction, while in others it is conducted as a phase of exten- 
sion work under the direction of the State college of agriculture. 



Chapter 11. 
STATE AID FOR SECONDARY AGRICULTURE. 



PROGRESS IN STATE AID. 



(Intinology of Slate aid for srconilar]! iunirmt'um in opriciilturc and home 

(vonomicfi. 

[Compiled by Miss M. T. SpPthniann, V. S. Itfpurtnipnt of Agriculture.] 



Laws pa-<sod. 



1S89 
1901 

inos 
urn 

1'4)7 
I '."OS 

1<J09 

1<»10 



l".tl2. 
191.}. 



1VI5. 



Alabama 

California 

Wisconsiu 

Minnesota 

(ji'oreia 

New York.... 

Michigan 

Oklahoma 

Virginia 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Milne 

Minnesota 

Louisiana 

.Ni'lir.i.ska 

Mary land 

\'('rinont 

Mis.sissipp; 

New York 

Massachusetts. 



Kansas 

North Carolina. 
North Dakota.. 



Wl^jn.-'ln. 
Colorado . . 

Maine 

Utah 



Arizona 

I»uisiaiiu 

Kons&j 

Indiana 

lowu 

Nebra.skn 

New Jersey . . . 
I'cnn.tylvania. 

Tennessee 

Vermont 

Texa-s 

Virginia 



System adopted. 



ConRressional district 

I ndetrrniinate dist rict 

County 

Indeterminate district 

Congressional dist rici 

I ndef erminatc district 

Coiiniy 

Judicial di strict (supreme court ) 

CJH^ressional di Urict 

H i?h scliool 

District 

I Ti^h school or academy 

Hi(!h school 

...do 

Indi'lerniina tc district 

H iijti .school 

Indeterminate district 

Count y 

High school 

I'uhlic high school 

Inde|>endent apricullurul schools 

Normal training high school 

Count V 

do 

High .scl ool 

do 

I ndeierminatc district 

High .school 

Huriil high school must teach agriculture to secure 
general Slate aid. 

I I igh school , 

County 

Normal I raining high schools 

High .school 

Coniolidated schools, teacher training , 

High school , 

Count y , 

Indeleruiinate district 

County 

U igh school 

do 

Congressional district 



Initial 
amount 
to each 
school for 
mainte- 
nance. 



$3,000 

> 50,0(10 

4,000 

4,000 

10,000 

10,000 

12,000 

12,000 

2,000 

2,000 

40,000 

(•) 

2,500 

1,250 

40,000 

800 

10,000 

$1,600-3,000 

$900-2,000 

(') 

(«) 

250 
2,500 
8,000 
2,500 
$500-700 
15,000 
500 



2,500 
$1,000-1,500 

U 

750 

1,250 

10,0(0 

6,000 

1,500 

2T0 

■60, UK) 

> 25,000 



> Total. 

> Two-thirds cost of instruction; $500 maximum. 

> Two-thirds .salaries. 

• Onc-luilf not mulntenimce. 



• $250 (making total of $500). 

• Two-thirds cast of vocational instruction. 
' Total additional aid. 



The forpgoinf]^ tul)le docs iu»t show the j)ro«;ress that has been inaile 
in mutters of udministiution and in getting results in general. Due 
20 



STATE AID FOR SECONDARY AGRICULTURE. 21 

to the lack of any organized system of agriculture for secondary 
schools, much money has been spent by the States without getting 
results in better-trained farmers. It will be noted that for the first 
10 years of this period of independent State aid that all of the money 
Avent to the support of some form of special agricultural school; 
in fact until verj^ recent years many have discussed the problem of 
secondary agriculture as if it had to do only with these agricultural 
schools. Because some of the districts in which they were estab- 
lished had no rural high schools of a general character, and because 
a system of vocational training in agriculture had not been devel- 
ojxhI, these schools have not l)een agricultural schools in a strict sense. 
Their history has been in a sense similar to that of the land-grant 
colleges ; without restrictions as to their field and without a guide to 
follow, they have adapted themselves to immediate service along 
lines already laid down. In more recent years many of the States 
have turned more toward aiding existing high schools in establish- 
ing departments of agriculture. Money appropriated for this pur- 
pose has not always been spent strictly for the purpose for which it 
was appropriated. The chief reason for this is that States have ap- 
propriated the money without establishing a standard and without 
providing a State organization and a means of supervision and in- 
sj)ection so that a standard could be maintained. 

More recently some of the States, having profited by the experience 
of these other States,- have provided for a more definite system of 
vocational agriculture with State aid. They have not only provided 
money for establishing schools and for paying a part of the salaries 
of teacliers in agricultural departments, but they have also provided 
adequately for State supervision. The work has been developed 
toAvard a definite end, definite standards have been set, and means 
have been taken to see that they Avere reached. The experience of 
most of the States has justified the belief that State aid and super- 
vision is needed mostly in the teaching of vocational agriculture. In 
putting the work upon a vocational basis, it meant teachers with 
better training, hence more equipment and more expensive and bet- 
ter supervision of both teachers and students, all of which mean 
a greater outlay in money than ordinary instruction. Placing agri- 
culture upon a vocational basis should mean more immediate returns 
in the increased capacity of the student in production. Local com- 
munities have not felt able to bear the added burden of expense, 
lience the State has come to their aid. Before a national program 
for aiding scondary schools in vocational agriculture was outlined 
tliere was a definite system of vocational agriculture established in 
the following States: Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, New 
Jersey, and Indiana. As the national law giving Federal aid to vo- 



22 DEMil^PMUNT OF AGRIC;ri/n'HAL INSTRUCTION. 

cational o<;rionlture ami the policy of the Federal board in its ud- 
niinistratiou have been determined to a great extent by the work in 
these States, we shall consider them more in detail. 

MASSACHUSETTS/ . 

In r.Ul the Commonwealth of Massachusetts passed an act gov- 
erning the establishment and maintenance of State-aided education 
in vocational agriculture as a part of its State plan for vocational 
education. The act provided a State fund to reimburse local boards 
of control for two-thirds of the salaries of instructors in high-sch(»!)l 
departments of agriculture and one-half the net sum expended in the 
maintenance of county schools of agriculture. 

The provision of the act made it possible for departments of agri- 
culture to be established in existing higii schools under the control 
of the regular school authorities. 

To avail itself of the act the city council or town meeting must 
j>a.ss an ordinance authorizing the school committee to establish such 
a department. While such a department is a part of the regular 
high school, it must meet a standard set by the State board of edu- 
cation and submit to direct supervision of the agents of that board. 
All advisory committee of 5 to 15 members is expected to aid in 
direction of the work in the local community'. The instructor em- 
ployed for such a department is expected to have a well-rounded 
training in practical agricidture, that he mjjy aid in community 
work among farmers and supervise farm work of the students. He 
must devote all of his time to agricultural work. As a rule the in- 
struction and supervision are rather intensive, 1 teacher not having 
over 2<) students. Shouhl as many as 3(J students enter tiie depart- 
ment two instructors would be employed. With two teachers there 
is opjDortunity for division of work which permits of some speciali- 
sation. Fifty i)er cent of the student's time in such a department is 
to I'c spent in vocational agriculture, the other half of the time being 
devoted to regular high-school subjects. 

To establish a county school of agriculture there nuist be in each 
rase a s[)ecial act of the State legislature providing for a board of 
trustees, bond issues to cover the first cost of the school plant, and a 
tax levy for yearly maintenance. The first cost is estimated at 
from $7r.,(M)() to $lo6,()(H), and $-i(),()00 for the first year's maintenance. 
Such an act must be sul)mitted to the county concerned for referen- 
dum vote in tlje November election. The controlling board of such 
.srhools consists of seven members — three county commi.ssioners serv- 
ing ex officio and four members appointed by the governor, all serv- 

* Scfl MimiiachUNoUa Board of EducnUon. Bulletin 72. Informatloii Rolatlng to tho 
ENtaliltiibnipnt of County AKricultnral Hcboola and ^V^icuLtoral Depnrtmeuts. Also 
yearly rrporlM of .Stn(o-uld<><l vucntl<itinl nKricnltnrnl ediK'nIion. 



STATE AID FOR SECONDARY AGRICULTURE. 23 

in<j^ without pay. The board employs a director of the school, who 
ser\'es as its executive officer and who is responsible to the State 
board for the management of the school. 

'J'hese county schools ha\ing 100 or more pupils and employing a 
number of instructors afford a degree of specialization not possible 
in the high school department. The entire curriculum of these 
schools is more dominately vocational. Eighty per cent of the time 
must be vocational agriculture, 50 per cent being productive farm 
Avorlv. Of the 20 per cent of the time devoted to general education 
one-half of that time, 10 per cent of the entire time, must be given to 
instruction in citizensliip, personal hygiene, occupational diseases, 
and accidents. These schools, like the high school departments, do 
not provide dormitories, as they are supposed to take students living 
at home on farms. The county schools, however, are all located on 
farms wliich are used for instructional purposes. 

The home-yroject lilcm. — In giving instruction in agriculture to 
students living upon farms, the home-project method has been worked 
out in Massachusetts. This method is essentially an effort to apply 
the part-time idea to the teaching of agriculture. An effort is made 
to organize and direct the home work of the student and to connect 
it with the instruction of the school in such a way that its educa- 
tional value is increased. "When such work is so organized and 
directed it is made a part of the instruction of the school and ac- 
credited as such. As the practical work of the students' p)roject is 
made an approach to the study of the principles involved, the proj- 
ect plan is a Avorking out of the problem method on a rather ex- 
tensive scale. To have the highest educational value a project should 
have the following essentials: It must involve new experience and 
the working out of new problems, extending over a considerable 
period of time; it should have direct supervision by competent au- 
thority; the work should be carefully planned at the outset and 
accurate records and accounts kept of the finance and methods in- 
volved; this record is made on the basis of a written report of the 
work. Each student before entering the work in agriculture must 
have provisions for carrying on suitable projects to be directed by 
the instructor in agriculture. A written agreement between the 
student, his parents, and the teacher is required. The student is 
expected to have individual responsibility for his project and to 
participate in the profits and losses. There is a definite relation be- 
tween each project and the instruction offered. A course in poultry 
husbandry is based upon a poultry project, while a course in vegetable 
gardening is based on a garden project. If a student can not secure 
a suitable project at home he may be allowed as a substitute for a 
project the privilege of working upon a suitable farm; providing 
such work may link up in a definite way with the instruction of the 



24 DEV'ELOPMKN'r OF A(iKi< ri/rri:Ai. instruction. 

school and may be ^i\('U soiih" (lircction liy tlic iiistiMictor. A stmlpnt 
in dairy hushandry may have no oppoitiinity for (hury practice at 
homo hut secure a position to work mornin<;s and evening's on a 
dairy farm; such work is considered to be ns vabiable from aji echi- 
calional point of view in some cases as the care of one or more cows 
on the student's own account at liome. 

The instructors are employed for 12 months and spend their sum- 
mers sui)ervisin«j: the student projects, aidin<r the boys" and <jiils' 
clul) work, and rendering general comnnmity service along agricid- 
(ural lines. 

From the standpoint of school administration tlie home-proje'-t 
j)lan has the advantage of securing farm practice under normal con- 
ditions with a minimum of ecpiipment at the school. If adequAte 
supervision is given the home work one instructor can direct rela- 
tively few students, especially if they are scattered over a wide area. 
In such cases transportation of the instructor or supervisor becomes 
a big item of expense. When the ^rassa<-husetts plan was l)eing de- 
veloped for the first year or two the overhead expense seemed all out 
of proportion to the results obtained, but as the work has develope<l, 
not only the number of schools and departments have increased, but 
the number of pupils per instructor as well, so that the overhead 
cost per pupil has been lowered. The State board has insisted, very 
wisely, u]>on records from which it is able to show that the money 
spent by the State has yielded immediate returns in dollars and cent.s. 
The following tal)le Avill show the development of the work in the 
increase of students and the money earned : 

llaininiis of vocatioual at/riciiliuntl s(u(J<nt/t. 

Niinil)pr of 
Year. studt'iits. EarnlnfiR. 

nH2 TO $11, KXI. 17 

1013 ^ 89 17, 982. 51 

1914 — 235 42, (KK). 73 

1915 413 56, 2r.4. 75 

1910 497 84. 173. 43 

NEW YORK.' 

When New 'i ork, in ll'i;}. amended its laws relating to industrial 
s<liools pas.sed in liUO, it had the benefit of some of the work done 
in Massachusetts. The plan worked out for agricultural education 
is modeled in a huge measuie \\\Hm the Massachusetts plan. New 
\ Ork has a nund)er of special schools of agriculture of secondary 
grade which are to be in a greater extent independent in their organi- 
zation and admini.strations. 'J'hese schools are not included in the 

' F«p rnlvcfBlty of flic Htnto of Now York. Diilk-lin No. CL'O, 1010. Schools of Ajsri- 
culturo, MccliHiilc Arts unU llouv MaklriK. 



STATE AID FOR SECONDARY AGRICULTURE. 25 

schools of ajjiiculture, mc'linnic arts, and home making. These 
schools are of two types: Intermediate schools which base four years 
of vocational work upon six years of elementary training, and high 
schools which base their four-year courses upon eight years of ele- 
mentary work. In both cases, although known as schools of agricul- 
ture, mechanic arts, and home making, they are, in reality, vocational 
departments of ordinary high schools under the direction of the prin- 
cipal of the general school. The law" provides that the commissioner 
of education shall apportion from the State school money to each of 
these schools a sum equal to two-thirds of the salary of the first 
teacher and one-third of the salary of each additional teacher, pro- 
vided : 

(1) That the time of such teachers is devoted exclusively to such 
school. (2) That the school has at least 15 pupils. (3) That the 
school maintains an organization and course of study and is conducted 
in a manner approved by the commissioner of education through the 
division of agriculture and industrial education. In a city the board 
of education may establish one of these schools, but in a common 
school district the question of establishing such a school must be de- 
termined by vote in the annual district meeting or a special meeting 
called for the purpose. If the school authorities are not capable of 
giving the teacher and students technical aid with agricultural prob- 
lems, it is suggested that an advisory board shall be appointed. 

At the time the system was studied in 1915 these boards did not 
appear to be especially active and as helpful as it was hoped for. 

Although the New York plan is in many waj^s similar to that of 
Massachusetts, it is not quite so intensive and a great deal more is 
left to the local communities. In 1916, G4 schools had availed them- 
selves of the provisions of the law. In some cases the classes were 
much larger than in Massachusetts. With more schools and a larger 
number of students there was less intensive suj^ervision of both 
teachers and pupils. Regarding the courses of study, it will be seen 
from the following that while the State sets a standard it allows lee- 
way for adaptation : 

COURSES OF STUDY. 

The classroom and laboratory instruction in these schools and departments is 
to be based upon practical experience gained on the farm, at home, or elsewhere. 
It iS' therefore impossible to prescribe courses of study or to prepare adequate 
outlines for particular subjects. This does not mean that the course of study 
is to be changed to suit the whims of pupils who do not know exactly what they 
v.ant or need. A definite course of study sliould be formulated at the l)eginning 
ard followed until there is ui'gent need for a change. A well-balanced general 
knowledge of the whole field of agricultural science and practice should be rep- 
r< .' ented in the course. 

Tiie following courses are not prescribed, but it is expected that any school 
desiring to nrake any change will secure the apin'oval of the commissioner of 



26 



DHVlOLOPiMKNT OF Ar.RK^ULTURAI^ INSTRUCTION. 



edut-ntion before doing st». Othor sul)j»Mts may, after approval, be siibstl tilled 
for those iudlcated below. It Is expected lliat the arrnnKeinent of siibje<l.s and 
the content of those subjects will be suited to the community In which the sch«ol 
Is located. 

A 8Ut/gcstcd course in agriculture for inlcrmcduilc ficliool-i o/ ii[nirullurv. 



KinST YKAK. 



Hours. 
a week. 



English n 

Arithmetic 5 

American history 2 

Mechanical drawing and shop- 

worl< 3 

Coniiiiercial and industrial geog- 
raphy 5 

General agriculture 3 



SKCONU YE.\«. 

English 5 

Mathematics 5 

Ani(>rican history 3 

Mechanical drawing and shop- 

wurk 5 

riant husbandry (growing clubs 
in the line of home project with 
l)lants) 5 

23 



TIIIRO YKAK. 

Iluiira. 
!i wook. 

English 3 

Matiiomatlcs, including bookkeoi)- 

ing 5 

Biology 5 

Soils and fertilizers H 



IS 



FOUUTH YKAU. 



EnglLsh 3 

Agricultural physics and agricul- 
tural choriiisti"y T* 

Animal husbandry and dairying. _ 5 
Special agriculture to suit loc:il 
conditions: 

I'^ruit growing 

-Grape culture 

Market gnnlening 

roultry, etc 



IS 



A suggested course in ngriciiUiirc for high sdioola of agriculture. 



ilKHV Yh:.\R. 



Hours, 
a wi'ck. 

.__ 4 



Engli.sh 

Algebra f> 

r.iology 5 

Fa nil mechanics r> i 

and i 7i 

r.iiillry husbandry 2*J 

2U 

KKCOND YKAR. 

English 3 

riane geometry 5 

Soils and fertilizers 51 

and i 10 

l-'arm cruiMi Oj 

13 



Tlllltn YKAK. 



Flours, 
a w«»ek. 

English 3 



History 

Economics 



or I 

History 5J 

Animal htishandry, including i 

dairying Til 

Fruit growing 5) 



Foi inii Yii.vjt. 



10 



IS 



English 3 

American history with civics '» 

t'hemislry or physics •"» 

Farm management 5 



IS 



STATE AID FOR SECONDARY AGRICULTURE. 2t 

Methods of teaching. — The home-project phm, as operated in 
New York, is somewhat of a modification of the plan as developed 
in Massachusetts. In Massachusetts the study of agriculture grows 
out of the project. In one class students may have a number of 
different projects, hence the project study is to a great extent indi- 
vidual study. In New York the project grows to a greater extent 
out of the course. A project may l^e started in the spring and an 
increasing amount of time given this practical worlv imtil by the time 
the summer vacation begins instructor and students are putting in 
a large share of their time upon the home-project work. The com- 
missioner of education is empowered to give each school district an 
additional fund of $200 to extend the employment of the agricul- 
tural instructor through the summer months. Most of the teachers 
are so employed. Their chief duty in summer is to supervise the 
home Avork of the students, but in addition to this they render a 
great deal of community service to the farmers and collect material 
for teaching purposes during the winter months. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

In 1911 the school code of Pennsylvania made the teaching of 
agriculture obligatory in all township high schools. Although much 
of the instruction under this requirement was perfunctory, it de- 
veloped a feeling that agricultural instruction could be made well 
worth while if established on a different Basis. The vocational 
education act, passed in 1913, provided State aid for departments 
of agriculture in high schools and for special vocational schools with 
agriculture and home-making dominating in the curriculum. These 
departments and schools are under the direct supervision of the 
bureau of vocational education, which is a part of the State de- 
partment of public instruction. In 1916-17 there were 17 voca- 
tional schools and 18 vocational departments in high schools. Tliere 
is little difference in the courses of study and method of instruction 
in the two types of schools. Local districts are encouraged to 
establish a department in connection with an existing high school. 
If such a school does not exist in a community which wishes the 
vocational work^ or the existing school can not meet the requirements, 
a vocational school may be established. Such a school is in reality 
a general high school adapted to the needs of rural life. Districts 
which can establish neither schools nor departments may send their 
jjupils to other districts for vocational training at State expense for 
one-half the tuition. The State reimburses local districts with voca- 
tional schools and departments for two-thirds the salary of the 
vocational teachers. 



28 DKVKI.OPMKNT OF AfiRIcri/rrRAT. TN.STRU<'TION. 

Til j,nvinir .lid t<» l(»(!il (•(nuiminitics the State innkes it rloiir that the 
inonev must 1k' used s|)(»cilically for vocational odiication. It reco*;- 
ni/t's the fact that a«4riciihiiiT has vahie in general education, but 
defines vocational agriculture as follows:^ 

V(«-iiti<nial Hf,'ricuUiire has a specilic purpose, tlint of iireparntlon for useful 
and cnick'Ht service In <x-(upatlon connected witli the tilhijrc of the soil, tlie 
care of domestic aninials, forestry, and other wafre-earniiiK or productive work 
on the farm. Moreover, this training is ulveii tc» the iudlvldual who has already 
indicated an occujiational aim in life, which aim this particular form of training 
Is desijcned to meet. 

The State requires that all teachers of agriculture shall be era- 
ployed for 12 months and that their entire time shall be spent in 
teachinc: and supervising agriculture. The following suggestions 
are given with regard to the selection of teachers: 

QuaUfications of teacherH.* — Great care must be exerci.sed in the selection of 
teachers who are qualitied to take charge of vocational ajrriculture in the 
public .schools. In all cases the success or failure of this type of training will 
deiH^nd very lartrely upon the selection of a teacher. Only such teachers 
as understand the purpose and aim of vocational training and are familiar 
with vocational methods will be successful in this work. 

Such teacher should have an equivalent of a high-school education. He 
should be a graduate of an approved agricniltural college, or, in lieu thereof, 
should hjive at least two years' training In a higher institution of learning, 
suppiemeiiteii with at least four short terms or an equivalent in approved 
agricultural courses of study. 

He nuist have had sullicient practical farm experience to make him familiar 
with farming methods. This should have been such as to put him in sympathy 
with rural life and to make him appreciate its problems. 

A teacher having a general well-rounded knowledge of agriculture is better 
prepared to meet the problems arising in such a school or department as is 
here contemplated than one who is a .specialist In a limited field. 

It is highly desirable that the teacher of agriculture should have ha<l some 
experience in teaching in the public s<hools jirevious to his entering upon this 
work. 

Abiiily to make and use working drawings is a valuable (lualiliiation, as is 
also a kiKtwledge of the use of tools and the use of the forge. 

Course of siudi/. — In addition to the regidar cour.^e of study, out- 
lined for students over 14 years of age who nuiy si)end the entire 
Iti months in school work and related home project, both vocational 
departments and school pro\ ide jKirt-time and evening clas.ses for 
those who are spending all or a large part of their working day in 
farm lalior. An efTort is made to link the sttuly of agricidture in 
both part-time and evening classes as closely as possible with the 
work in which the .stiulent is engaged. In the regular day-school 
courses the .students are expected to spend half their time upon agri- 

■ ('otniniinw<>aUh of I'onn».TlvanlH. I>e|nrttnetit of I'uWic InHtructlon. Vocational Dl- 
vIbIoii. Unl!i'tlii 1. 11tt:r VixnlloiiMt E<liic«tl«»ti In ronnsylvanlH. 1". 0. 
' Ilild., iiiillrUii L', l<.)i:{. AKrUiiUiiraK SchoulK niid iHimrtmonta. I'. 0. 



STATE AID FOR SECO^'DARY AGRICULTURE. 



29 



cultural and related practical work. All courses must be approved 
by the department of public instruction. Although it is expected that 
courses will be adapted to meet local needs, the schools which have 
been studied follow quite closely the following course suggested by 
the State department: 

Outline of suggested course of study. 



FIRST YEAR. 



Hours 
._ 4-5 



English 

History and civics or otlier aca- 
demic subject 4-5 

Drawing 1 

Shop work 2 

Soils 5 

I'oiiltry raising 3 

Farm fox*estry 2 

Agricultural projects. 



THIRD YEAR. 

Ilo.irs. 
English 4-5 

Physics or other academic sub- 
ject 4-5 

Drawing 2 

Farm animals, including dairying — 5 

Fruit raising 5 

Agricultural projects. 

IrOURTH YEAR. 

English 4-5 

Chemistry or physics 4-5 



Farm mechanics 

Rural law 

Fertilizers 

Farm management _. 
Agricultural project. 



SECOND YEAR. 

English 4-5 

One academic subject 4-5 

Drawing 1 

Farm crops 5 

Vegetable gardening 3 

Ornamental gardening 2 

Farm bookkeeping 1 

Agricultural project. 

The nature of the work in agriculture given will be indicated by 
the descrijDtion of the courses in the catalogue of the Lake Township 
Vocational School. 

AGRICULTURE. 

Poultrii. — The study of poultry as a farm enterprise, Including a study of 
poultry -house construction, the more important breeds of poultry, incubation, 
brooding, methods of rearing chickens, and the general care and management 
of the farm flock. 

Vegetable gardening. — The work in this course Includes practice in the man- 
agement of hotbeds and cold frames, seed sowing, transplanting, and raising 
of early A'eg(>table plants. The more important vegetables are started in de- 
tail and the planning of home gardens considered. 

^oils. — During the last half of the freshman year a study is made of the 
origin, formation, classification, and physical properties of various soils, to- 
gether with the relation of these to soil moisture, heat, and methods of soil 
management. 

(■cncral science. — This course introduces the pupils to the fundamental facts 
'»f the conunou sciences so as to give the pupils this general knowledge before 
Fcience work can be studied in detail in the junior and senior years. 

Fruit raising. — Under this head the planting, training, care, fertilization, 
.spraying, harvesting, and marketing of both tree fruits and small fruits are 
thoroughly studied. Laboratory work includes practice in grafting, mixing of 
spray materials, and field trips during which pruning is taught by having tlie 
pupils prune trees under supervision. 



30 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRH'l'LTUllAI^ INSTRUCTION. 

iJaii-ying. — A gern'nil survey of the Uaiiy imlustry, including ii study of the 
si-i)aration aud luuidiint: uf milk, cilviiu riixMiiii;,' ami chuniliig, and ust- of the 
Ilabcock tost. 

Auivial husbandry. — A study of tlie liislury and cluiracterlstics of the differ- 
ent broods of horses, cattle, sheep, and swine. Pnictice In judRin« animals 
and a study of feediuR practices. 

I'ann crops. — A course including tlic studf of the history, production, ir.i- 
provoniont, cultivation, harvesting, and marketing of cereals, hay, forage, tlber, 
and root crops. 

I'orcsiry. — The relalioii of forestry tn agriculture, identitlcafion of tree char- 
acteristics, and uses of tiie various kinds of wood. 

Onxamcntal gardcnimi. — A .study of the ornamentation of home grounds, 
including methods of planting and the selection of planting materials. 

Mechanical dratcinii. — The study of methods of laying out to scale, inking, 
and tracing; reading of working drawings, etc. 

.S7(0p icork. — The use of woodworking tools is taught by having the pupils 
make useful articles for the home and farm. 

Farm bookkccpinrf. — The study and practice of double-entry bookkeeping aa 
applied to business transactions of the farmer. ^ 

Farm mechanics. — Hope splicing, knot tying, lacing belts, study of gas en- 
gines, and farm machinery. 

Fertilizers. — A study of the diiTerenl kinds of fertilizers, proper mixtures for 
various crops, time iind rate of application. 

Fann management. — I'lanning the work of the farm, study of crop rotations, 
layout of liclds, aud other pi"oblems, including the making of financial state- 
ments of farm operations. 

Rural law. — An elementary consideraiion of the law in its relation to the 
farmer. 

Project itork. — Each juipil is reciuired lo work out some project .such as rais- 
ing of .some crop, poultry, or live stock each summer on his homo farm under the 
supervision of his instructor. 

Methods of teachruf/. — The home-project plan i.s in vogue in all of 
the schools and departments of vocational agriculture in Pennsyl- 
vania. The teachers nf agriculture are known as supervisors and em- 
ployed for 12 months in the year with the understanding that one of 
the most imiwrtant jjhases of their work will be the summer super- 
vision of projects. The in-oject is preceded by a study of the subject 
in the classroom. The schools are encouraged to have classroom 
shops and a greenhouse equipped to give practical instruction to tho 
students while at school. They are not encouraged, however, to sup- 
ply farms or any land at the sc-hool for instruction in agriculture, 
as it is considered that the i)ix)joct work upon the home farm offers 
training under conditions more- nearly normal and that an ordinary 
rural coiniminity is rich in resources of educational value in training 
for farming and rural life. As in Ma.ssa^'hu.setts and New York, an 
advisory boanl may be appointed. It is significant to note that it ig 
advised that farmers be aj)pointed who will cooperate with tho 
teacher by allowing their farms, herds, and flocks to be used for teach- 
ing purposes. 



STATE AID FOR SE(;ONDARY AGRICULTURE. 31 

NEW JERSEY.^ 

It was in 1913 also that the State of New Jersej^ established a sys- 
tem of State-aided vocational schools and departments. In brief the 
plan established is for the State to give money for the equipment and 
maintenance of approved vocational schools on a dollar for a dollar 
basis in proportion to the amount spent by the local community out 
of funds raised by local taxation to the amount of $10,000 annually, 

1'he following is summarized from the rules of the State board of 
c(hication which govern the establishment of vocational schools and 
departments : 

1. Advisory boards must 1)«^ appointed by the local boards of control, subject 
to the approval of the coumussioncrs of education. The advisory boards should 
bo made up of persons who have had actual successful experience in the occu- 
pations for which the school prepares. The efficiency ot vocational .schools 
should be measured largely by the ability of their pupils to meet the demands 
of the trades, industries, and occupations for which these schools give prepara- 
tion. Whether the schools give instruction in agriculture, home economics, or 
industrial subects, the A'ocational work must be such as to prepare the pupil for 
wage earning by participation in actual projects and processes of a very real char- 
acter. This requires an intimate ami practical knov.iedge of actual conditions 
and practices in the work as it is carried on outside the school. Only those ex- 
perienced as employers or employees can furnish this information. The task 
of establishing and maintaining these schools, on a practical basis, is so im- 
portant and so difficult that the instructors in the school, who must themselves 
have had such experience, need also the advice and assistance of these having 
the practical knowledge of the industry or occupation and the conditions pe- 
culiar to it in the locality. The advisory boards have no power except to give 
advice and assistance to the local school authorities in carrying on the work. 

The advisory board of an agricultural school or depai'tment must be made up 
of at least three successful farmers in the area served by the school and should 
represent the various agricultural activities taught. 

2. A separate vocational school must be in a separate building and have a 
separate organization of curricula, equipment, pupils, and teachers. 

3. A vocational department of another school must have a separate organi- 
zation of cuiTicula, pupils, and teachers as far as the vocational work is con- 
cerned. 

4. The State board of education will not approve State aid for more than 
$10,000 for any district unless the applications from all districts amount to less 
than $80,000. 

"). To receive State aid in any given year, application must be made before 
.January 1. 

G. In an all-day vocational school (a) not less than one-half of the time must 
be given to shop or farm work ; (b) the shop must be conducted on a productive 
or community basis; (c) instruction must tend to become individual; (d) the 
shop must be carried on like the real shop outside; (e) the product must be 
useful; if) the school day must not be less than six or more than seven hours 
in length; and (g) the agricultural vocational school must have its courses 
arranged as a series of projects. 



' SoG New Jersey Department of Public Instruction. Bulletin Ko. 1, 1913. State- 
aided Vocational Scliools. 



32 DEVELOPMKNT OV ACRMTI/rrnAT. INSTRUCTION. 

7. Tlio piuM (lino clnss must iz'wr iiisf ruction of dircft vnluo to tlio jiupll for 
llu' work in wliidi he Is oupif,'i'd. 

8. To secure approval, the piirt-llme or ronlinuatlon work must (o) di-nl witli 
n sjH'fiH*' uroup of workers; (b) n«M to the technlenl knowledge and me<-hnnlnil 
skill of tlie workers; (r) provide eHicient instruction; nnl (d) provide a<le(iuate 
amount of time. 

!). An evening Industrial oi' a>;ri(iillural «ir household arts school must give 
short unit courses. 

10. All vocational schools nuist iirovid<' for (<i) shoj) or faiin or household 
cxpcrlencH; (l>) instruction in related subjects; and (c) instructi<in In academii- 
suhject.s. 

11. Scliools nnist he convenient. of location and access. 

111. Schools nuist have adequate general and mechanical equipment. 

13. Tuition may he paid by a district sending pupils to vocational schools 
and he reimbursed to the am(uint <»f $2r> per annuu) f(»r each puiiil. 

M. Districts may transport pupils either within the district or to other dis- 
tricts and he reimbursed for TH per cent of the amount expended. 

Vocational agriculture in Atlantic County. — The provisions of the 
State vocational education act for agjricultural education have been 
taken advantajro of to the <rreatest extent in Athtntic County. In 
this county a rather complete county system has been worked, but 
under a board of five members. A<rricultural .schools have been estab- 
lished in four centers: Pleasautville, CV)lo^ii<\ llammonton, and 
Minotola, each in char<;e of a teacher employed for the full year, and 
all under the supervision of a county director. In these schools tho 
stu fi'uts are clas.sified as follows: 

1. Full time. — Men and boys above IT) years of a^e taking at least 
?> hours per day, 5 days a week, during the winter. 

2. Fart time. — Students taking less than the time prescribed for 
full-time students, spending their time mostly on project study. 
Part-time classes are held mostly at night. 

3. School ]m/>lls. — Students over 15 years of age enrolled in the 
public schools, above the seventh grade, taking not less than 3 hours 
per week. Work consists chiefly of elementary project study, which 
is taken in lieu of a like ninnber of hours of regular school work. 

4. Lecture coume. — For men and women meeting once a week or 
oftener in the winter to discuss agricultural problems of commtinity 
interest, 

r>. Nlyht classes. — Composed of men who meet once a week or 
oftener studying project problems and subjects of intere.st upon their 
home farms. 

(j. Short course. — For tho.se unable to attend a full-1'ime course a 
detailed study of a specific subject is made for a period of 2, 4, or 
G we<'ks. 

As the work was in o])eration in li»l."> when the .school at llaiiunon- 
ton was visited, the aims and methods appeared to be nioic nanowly 
vocational than the a<Micultiiral work coiidiKted in other Stales. 



STATE AID FOR SECONDARY AGRICULTURE. 38 

More mature students were readied and less effort made to link the 
work closely with other school work. The community is a center of 
intensive agriculture, including production of small fruits and 
peaches. Such a community would furnish a wealth of resources for 
a general education in agriculture, as the student could gain experi- 
ence in many lines. Instead of encouraging the direction of training 
and tlie use of material from this point of view, the students were 
encouraged to become proficient in a special line. Students were 
encouraged to stay with a project for several years if necessary to 
secure the maximum financial returns, although it might be to the 
neglect of opportunity for new experience in other lines. 

The entire county system of agricultural schools was at the service 
of the farmers of the section to aid them in their problems. In this 
work it took the place of a county farm bureau. The director in 
fact did act through a cooperative arrangement as county agent. 
For the use of the farmers in making analysis of soils, fertilizers, 
and spraying material, a chemical laboratory is maintained at 
Pleasantville. The agricultural instructors also aided in the or- 
ganizations of farmers for cooperative buying and selling. In 1916 
the staff took over the entire direction of the boys' and girls' agri- 
cultural clubs. 

INDIANA. 

In Indiana the vocational agriculture of the secondary schools is 
linked closely with elementary agriculture in the common schools 
and with the boys' and girls' club work directed by the agricultural 
extension department of Purdue University. The same act provid- 
ing for vocational education provides for employing county agents. 
At the same time the vocational education law was passed in 1913 
the legislature made the teaching of elementary agriculture manda- 
tory in the public schools of towns and townships. According to 
the law the county agent is expected to " aid the county superin- 
tendent of schools and the teachers in giving practical education in 
agriculture and domestic science." The vocational education law 
provided for establishing either schools or departments which may 
receive State aid. In 1916 thirteen communities had established 
departments of vocational agriculture. The departments served the 
needs of the rural communities so well that there was no demand for 
special agricultural schools. In addition to the vocational teachers 
who are employed for 12 months, a number of other teachers are 
given special training and employed during the summer months 
to supervise the home project work. Twenty-one such teachers were 
employed during the summer of 1915, supervising the work of 700 
pupils. The greater part of this work is considered a definite part 
154070°— 20 3 



M DKVELOPMKNT OF AGIUCULTURAI. INSTRUCTION. 

of the boys' antl •!:ii'ls' cliil) woi-k orfjaiiized as a phase of :i;;ri- 
cuiturul oxtensioii. 

\'oc-MtionaI a'^ritultui't' imiy be ^iveii in one of the tliree foUow- 
iii^ chisses: (1) All-day vocational schools; {'2) part-time classes; 
(8) e\enin^ vocational classes. The all-d^y school may be or- 
franized either as a separate school or as a distinct department of 
iiiiother school. When orpinized as a department the or«;anizat!on 
must be distinct from the re<^nlar school. The folhjwin^ from a 
bulletin^ giving plans for or^^anization shows the point of view with 
respect to such oi-«ranization : 

Wlicthor vocatiumil oduciUion is conducti'd in a soptH'site liuilding or uiidtT 
the KUiue roof as yonerul education is uot neccs.sarily of vital iniimrtancc. It 
is, liowever, absolutely noce;?sary, if Slnte aid he j^lveii, tliat tlie vocational 
work be so carried on that it may roalize its dominant aim of tittinp: for 
n.scfal employment in tlie sliop, in the home, or on the farm. If vocational 
a,r:ri<-uIturo is orjjanized under the tirst plan, (he local conununity will have 
eslahlishod a prosuiaptioii in favor of etlicient work in Ihc eye of (he dt part- 
men t. 

The following; from the same publication - ;;ives an idea of the 
nature of the work in the all-day schools or departments: 

All-day ayrnuUural sdiooh.- -In the all-day agricultural scliool pupils must 
g\\i' most of their tin»e to practical business-like work in agriculture and its 
related .sciences. Practical prohlem.s nuist be worktd out on a real farm under 
the direction of the teacher. Since most of these activities must take place 
during the sunuuer months, it will be necessary for the vocational teachers in 
an agricultural .school to be employed for the entire year, with a vacation in 
the winter. Their entire time during the summer sliould be taken up with 
superintending the pnictical work of the students, while In the winter mouths 
their time would be devoted to the home-project work and to teaching the 
thiHiry and science underlying the art of farming. 

Part-time classes give vocational instruction to students over 1-1 
and under 25 years of age, who are regularly and lawfully employed 
in the field of work for which instruction is provided and where 
the instruction is complementary to the work in which the pupils 
are engaged during tlie time tliey are liot attending school. The 
I m liana law provides that — 

when the board of inlucation or to\vii-.liiii trusiee of any city, town, or town- 
shii> has establishe(l ui>proved vocational schools for the instruction of youths 
over 14 years of age who are engaged in regular employiucnt, in part-time 
cla.ss»'s, and has formally aeeepteil the jirovlslons of this section, such a boanl 
or Irustee Is authorized to require all yo\iths between the ages of 14 and 10 
years who are regularly employed l<» attend school not less than 5 hours iK>r 
wtvk l)etwe«'n (he hours of s a. m. and ~> p. m. during the school term. 

Evening cla.<:ses in vocational agricidturo are established for stu- 
dents over 17 years of age who are employed in agriculture during 



> nppArtment of Tubllc Instructiou. Bulletin No. 0, 1914. Vocational Education in 
In<Ilann. I'. 18. 
■/WJ., I). 20. 



STATE AID FOR SECONDARY AGRICULTURE. 35 

the day. TJie instruction in an evening class in agriculture must 
deal Avitli the subject matter of the day's employment, and must be 
so given as to increase the efficiency of the student in his work. 

Local communities desiring to establish any or all of these forms 
of A'ocational agriculture in partnership with the State, which pays 
two-thirds the cost of such instruction, are subject to the following 
provisions: (1) Local school authorities must provide the neces- 
sary money for the purchase or rental of lands and buildings adapted 
to the needs of the vocational department or school to be established 
and pay the cost of all necessary equipment. (2) They must as- 
sume entire responsibility for the conduct of the work and must 
initiate its organization. (3) They must accept standards set by 
the State, submit to State supervision, and receive approval of the 
work done. 

Sfaudards for agricultuwl schools and departments} — 1. Evi- 
dence of proper interest on the part of the community must be fur- 
nished tlie State board of education. There must be an assurance 
of not less than 15 and not more than 25 students for each day, 
part-time, or evening class organized. The location of the school 
must meet the hearty approval of the people of the community 
as well as the State board. 

2. An advisor}^ committee, consisting of five membere, shall be 
appointed to " counsel with and advise tlie board and other school 
officials responsible for the management and supervision of " the 
vocational agricultural school or department. It is recommended 
that one or two members of the committee be women who are 
familiar witli farm liorae problems. 

?j. The teaclier of agriculture must be a graduate of a standard 
high school and a standard agricultural college or prove an equi- 
valent training in technical agriculture. He must devote all of his 
time during the 12 months to the vocational work. 

4. Laboratory equipment must be approved by the State board. 
There should be apparatus sufficient for thorough work of secondary 
grade in soils, crops, animal husbandry, dairying, poultry, horticul- 
ture, carpentry, and blacksmithing, or for such of these lines of 
Avork as are to be taken up. A complete list of books must also be 
submitted for the approval of the board. 

5. The course of study must be worked out in detail and sul)- 
iKJtted at least 30 days before the beginning of the school term for 
the approval of the board. The course may be for one, two, three, or 
four yeare. Where the school authorities decide upon a four-j-ear 
course the following is recommended : 

' Sec Dopartment of Public Instruction. Hulletin No. 7, 1914. Regulntions Governing 
VocatioiiiU Agricultural Schools and Departments in Indiana. 



30 IiKVIiLUPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 

Course of study. 

riUST YKAIl. 

Rcr. T^flb. 
Knplish 4 

Hortiiulture •'< - 

Soils aiul fertilizers 3 2 

Mechanical drawing nixl wdodworkiii;: - 

Mathematics 3 

Home-project work . 

SKfONU YKAR. 

Kiij-'lish 3 

(Mvlcs 3 

Malheniatlcs 2 

Dairying 3 2 

Farm crops (not limited to botany) 3 2 

Mechnidcal drawinj: and woodworking , 2 

Home-project work 

TIIIKI) YKAK. 

English 3 

United States history 3 

Farm ncconnting 3 

I'liysics (not academic) 3 2 

Animal hiishandry 3 2 

J'arpentry 2 

Home-project work 

KOl'KTJl YKAU. 

Fiinii management (ln>lii(liiig marketing) 5 

I'onltry 2 2 

(Seneral Jilstory (elective) 

Farm mechanics and engineering ■_ 2 1 

Chemistry (not academic) 3 2 

I'orging and Macksniithiiig 1 2 

Hom»'-i)roject work 

(■». Iloine-projcct work must be an integral part of the course of 
study for each student. This work must be carefully inspected and 
suj)ervised by the instructor. Each pupil must make a written report 
of eacli project ba.sed upon a careful record. The instructor must not 
only sui)mit these reports to the State board upon comj)letion of the 
project but must also submit within three weeks of the bej^innin*; of 
the school term an outline of the work to be done by each stiuleiit. 
'J'he following projects are suggested. Feeding swine, sheep, cattle, 
or poultry for market; feeding j)oultry for egg production; caring 
for a dairy c(»w and her products; caring for a team of horses, or a 
brood sow : selecting, testing, and grading seeds for farm crops; poul- 
try hatching, etc.; ccirn growing, gardening, canning fruits anil vege- 
tables; nuirketing farm pnnliicts; and snudl fruit growing. 



Chapter III. 

AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SECONDARY 

SCHOOLS. 



Representative schools chosen. — The author has had abundant op- 
portunity to visit secondary schools for the purpose of studying their 
organization and methods of teaching agriculture. From a large 
number studied the following have been chosen not because they were 
the best schools visited but because they were fairly representative of 
the type indicated : 

District schools of agriculture: Fifth District Agricultural and 
^Mechanical School, Monroe, Ga. 

( 'ounty schools of agriculture : Agricultural High School, Sparks, 
JMd. ; Bristol County Agricultural School, Segreganset, Mass. 

I*ublic high schools : Hannibal High School, Hannibal, N. Y. ; Con- 
cord High School, Concord, Mass. ; Hopkins Academy, Hadley, ISIass. 

Normal schools : State Normal School, Platteville, AYis. 

Private schools for whites : Berry School, Mount Berry, Ga. 

Private schools for Negroes : : Manassas Industrial School for Col- 
ored Youth, Manassas, Va, 

FIFTH DISTRICT AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL SCHOOL, 

MONROE, GA. 

TJie district agricultural schools of Georgia} — In 1906 the General 
Assembly of Georgia passed an act providing for the establishment 
and maintenance of an industrial and agricultural school in each 
of the 11 congressional districts of the State. The schools were to 
be definitely aiRliated with the University of Georgia as branches 
of the State College of Agriculture. The university became inter- 
ested in their supervision. A keen interest was aroused in each 
district, and sharp competition developed among different localities 
for the location of the schools. Liberal bids of land and cash were 
made, the total of the accepted bids amounting to approximately 
'■'489,000 in cash and 3,214 acres of land. Electric lights, water, and 
sewage disposal were furnished free to each school for five years. 

These schools were to be of secondary grade, intermediate between 
the rural elementary schools and the agricultural college. The law 

' For a detailed description of these schools, see U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 
191G, No. 44. The District Agricultural School of Georgia. 

37 



38 DEVELOPMENT 01' AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 

sti[)ulates that the principal shall Itc an iiitolli<i;ent farmer ami that 
ho shall 1)0 aidod by a laculty tapalilo of ;j;ivin<^ praotioal instruction 
in a«;rioulturo and mechanic arts alonjj; with the olemonts of an 
Kn^rli-sh education. The district agricultural schools of Geor«ria rep- 
resent the most extensive State-aided system of special a«;ricultural 
schools in this country. 

liuiliilngs and cguiprnenf.— The citizens of Monroe hid $'>1,()()() 
in cash and 2r)() acres of land. This bid was accepted and the fifth 
district school located at Walker Station in "^^'alton County, al>out 
l\ miles north of Monroe on the Gainesville Midland Kailr^ad. 
.\.hhou;j:h local trains stop at "Walker, the school is locateil in open 
country, formin<r a small community by it.self. The buildin<j^s con- 
sist of an academic building and a boys' dormitory, both modern 
brick buildings valued at $ir),()0() each. A frame cottage Imilt for 
the principal's residence is used at the present time as a girl's dormi- 
tory. In addition to the farm buildings, there is a school shop, a 
smokohou^io. a powerhouse, and a laundry, which, with its equipment, 
is valued at ij;2,000. 

As the school farm is considered the agricultural laboratory, there 
is no special provision nuide for inside laboratory instruction. The 
chemical laboratory is used for tho.se exercises given. The school 
shop is provided with benches and tools for woodworking and a 
forge and anvil for ironworking. A separator and other equipment 
for handling milk is a part of the kitchen equipment. Likewise a 
canning outfit is used in putting up fruits and vegetables for use in 
the school dining !*ooni. A relatively large I'oom of the academic 
building is used both for the principal's oflice and as a library. The 
library, having very few bulletins and reference books on agriculture, 
i.« used but little for agricultural study. 

T/ir school farm. — The 250 acres which comprise the school farm 
are for the most part excellent agricultural land a alued at $100 per 
acre. About 30 acres are used for the school buildings ajid campus. 
Permanent pasture comprises r»() acres and 45 acres in woodland, leav- 
ing 125 acres in cultivation. Fifteen acres of the cultivated land are 
used for cotton as a cash croj), and all the remainder used to supply 
food to the .student boarding house, oilhor directly or indirectly 
through feeding farm animals. 

The farm buildings inclu(l(> separate barns for horses, cows, and 
ralv<'s; a machine shod, poultry and hog houses. A new concrete 
sihj has boon built preliminary to building a modern daiiy barn. 
The farm animals include 2 Poichoron brootl mares with 2 colts, 'i\ 
nudes, 1 Hereford and 1 Jersey bull. \'\ dairy cows, 18 head young 
♦•attle, and 75 hogs. The value of the live stock owned would ap- 
piv).\imate $:i,5()0. Fa?-ui nuichinc^-y to (ho \;due of $1,500 is owned. 



AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 39 

In addition to the tools and implements commonly found on southern 
farms, there is a small grain separator, a gasoline engine, an ensilage 
cutter, a hay press, manure spreader, corn shredder, and an electric 
motor. The gross income of the farm for 1915 was $G,600, leaving 
a net profit of $1,173.29. 

Students. — On September 28, 1916, there were 120 students, 79 
of whom were boys and 41 girls. All the students live at the school 
except 2, who live on near-by farms, and 12 who live in Monroe. The 
following students are taking courses in agriculture: First year, 3G 
(8 of these are girls); second year, 29; third year, 13. Although 
the school was then filled to its capacity for students, registration 
Avas not restricted to residents of the fifth district. Students are 
registered from other parts of Georgia and from three other States. 

Course of study. — The course of study ^ adox3ted for the district 
agricultural schools of the State in 1915 is in operation as far as 
equipment and time will allow. The work in poultry husbandry, 
dairying, and farm management is not given at the present time, 
nor the agricultural laboratory work suggested for the first year. 
Students are expected to have completed the elementary school of 
seven grades before entrance. Boys must be 1-4 and girls 13 years 
of age. 

Standard of credit. — Although the State standard for graduation 
is but 14 units, most of the students are taking more nearly 17 unity 
of work. Five class periods of 40 minutes are equivalent to 1 unit. 
In laboi-atory work the periods are 80 minutes long. No credit is 
given for farm practice. The school year consists of 36 weeks. 

Methods of teaching. — The classes in agriculture visited were un- 
der two diiferent instructors. One of the instructors, an experienced 
teacher, had excellent interest, as he sought opportunity to connect 
the lesson of the textbook with the daily farm experience of the 
students. The other teacher, vrithout previous teaching experience, 
was called upon to take hold of a class for which he had no prepa- 
ration. The students dragged through a recitation period by taking 
turns in reading from the textbook. Although an effort is made to 
utilize the farm exi>erience of the students in the classroom recita- 
tion, there is no definite connection between the course of study and 
tiie planning of ih^ school farm and no definite relation between the 
daily classroom recitation in agriculture and the dail}^ farm labor. 

Cse of the school farm. — Although tlicre is a lack of definite relation 
between farm work and class work, the dominating aim of the school 
farm is to furnish practical instruction to the students. Each stu- 
dent is required to spend 36 hours per week in farm practice. The 

* For a description of the course of study with class scliedal<>, see Bareaw of Education, 
Bulletin, 191G, No. 44. pp. 19-28, 



40 DEVELOPMKXT OF AORTrrT.TT'nAT- TNSTRIU'TION. 

work consists of the iv^uhir labor of tlir farm in season under the 
supervision of one of the instructors or the farm superintendent. 
In order to distribute the Avork and i)rovide for supervision, the 
hrst and third year students have (lass work in the forenoon and 
Held work in the afternoon. alternatin«5 with the second and fourth 
vear students. All of the farm l)uildin<rs have l)een constructed by 
the students. Most of the students do more than .'U> hours of farm 
work a week. A daily record is kept of all work done and the 
amount beyond the retjuired hours is credited upon their board ac- 
count at o to 10 cents per hour, accordin^^ to the nature of the work 
and tiie age of the student. Surplus work is given to those who are 
in most need of the money. Several students have been able to i)ay 
their way by working on tiie school farm. A number of students 
are retained for the summer work, receiving as wages $18 per month 
and their board. A fcAv students liave paid ])oard and received pay 
by the hour for their services. The students who remain in the 
summer secure some practice not to be obtained by most of them 
who return home. For example, the school cans a good part of its 
supply of certain vegetables and fruits during the summer. 

Although the aim of the school farm is primarily educational, it 
is depended upon largely to supply the dormitory and as a source 
of revenue, hence it can not plan its work in such a Avay and grow 
such crops as to secure the maximum educational value. The students 
may know the practice involved in cotton })ro(lu('tion, hence there 
may be little necessity from an educational point of view for growing 
cotton, but the school has soil well adapted to cotton and needs it as 
a cash crop. 

A definite rotation is maintained. The farm has shown continual 
improvement since the school was established, hence serves well as a 
general demonstration of good farming methods. The following 
shows the acreage of crops for 191C: 1.") acres cotton followed by rye; 
15 acres wheat followed by peas; 40 acres corn (partly for silage) 
followed by winter oats; 35 acres oats followed by peas for hay; 5^ 
acres alfalfa; 50 acres pasture; and 8 acres orchard. 

It is interesting to note that when the question came u|) as to using 
the farm more specifically for educational purposes, the principal 
thought it could be done better with a farm of only 15 acres. 

Social ndminhtration. — As most of the students live at the school, 
the problem of directing their social life is presented. The girls and 
boys are kept separate for the most part, the gills living in a separate 
building under the direction of a matron, and the boys living in 
the main dormitory under the diicction of the principal and the male 
in.structors. All of the students take care of their own rooms. They 
also do most of the other janitorial services and the work of the school 



AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 41 

boarding house. For the Latter services the girls are given school 
credit and pay for overtime as the boys are in the case of farm work. 
Board and Laundry are furnished to the students at the rate of $10 
per month. As no tuition is charged and but one or tAvo small fees 
exacted, the cost is comparatively low. 

As the school is located in the country, the students have little 
opportunity to spend money. Their entire time is under the direc- 
tion of the principal. From 7.20 to 4.20 they are supposed to be 
engaged in the classrooms or engaged in work or study, except for a 
brief period for dinner. Although the girls are required to dress 
in a neat uniform, the boys most of the time appear in the classroom 
and at the table in the same clothes they Avear at farm labor. The 
following is a schedule of the usual work day : 

6 a. m.. — Arise. 

6.25 a. ni. — Room and jjerson in order lor inspection. 

6.30 a. m.— Breakfast. 

7.50 a. m. — Chapel. 

8.10 a. m. to 12.15 p. m. — School or farm work. 

12.15 p. m. — Dinner. 

1 to 4.20 p. m. — School or farm work. 

4.20 to 6.15 p. m. — Recreation if desired. 

7 p. m. — Inspection. 
9.30 p. m.— Light hell. 
9.45 p. m. — Retire. 

Saturday afternoons are frequently taken for" athletic sports. At 
the time of the visit there Avas a Aery lively football game in Avhich 
a team selected from the first and fourth years contested with a team 
representing the second and third years. Although this Avas strictly a 
school affair, there Avas no lack of interest. In the evening the 
students assembled for a short program, folloAved by a social hour 
in Avhich the bo3\s and girls joined togetlier in simple dances and 
harmless games. The principal directs these affairs upon the assump- 
tion that it is natural for boys and girls of high-school age to come 
together in a social way, and that there is little danger if there is 
proper supervision. 

On Sundays, Bible classes and simple services of a nonsectarian 
character are held for all. The problem of finding profitable, harm- 
less pastime for Sunday has not been completely solved, however. 

Local extension work. — By an arrangement Avith the State agricul- 
tural college, one of the instructors in agriculture is to spend one-half 
of his time as a farm demonstrator for Walton Count3^ The man 
appointed to the position had not gotten his extension Avork fully 
under Avay at the time of the visit. Since the school Avas first estab- 
lished there has been considerable extension work among the farmers. 
The principal of the school is a practical farmer Avho Avas reared in 



4^ DEVELOPMENT OF AORICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 

llii> roiintry; Iieiuc he is well qualiiicd to act as a farm advisor. The 
scJjool has cooperated witli the fanners in the purchase of live 
stock and has used its pure-bred live stock for connnunity 
ljieetlin<i:. The school farm has been a source of iiuprovi'd se( d 
as well as pure-bred stock for breeding purposes. Tlie school 
has taken active part in the county fairs held at Monroe. I)ur- 
in^,^ the sunnner farmers' institutes are held at the school, where both 
men and women nieet with experts from the State agricultural col- 
lege. At the one held during the last summer there was an attend- 
ance of 75. A sliort smnmer school was liclil also for teachers. Dur- 
ing the last session there .were 130 in attendance. Tavo teachers of 
agriculture gave practical courses to rural teachers, preparation for 
work in canning being a prominent feature. During the coming year 
this course is to be extended and all supervisors in the district are to 
take part as instructors. It is not expected that the school will bo 
able to accommodate all who apply. 

Each summer the principal undertakes to visit the homes of all stu- 
dents living in the district that he may become acquainted with the 
])arents and the conditions surrounding the home life of the .stu- 
dents. 

BALTIMORE COUNTY AGRICULTURAL HIGH SCHOOL, SPARKS, MD. 

Baltimore County. Md.. has for years nuiintainod an efficient school 
system, the county serving as a unit for administration. Inasmuch as 
the county has extensive agricultural interests, in 1008 a special agri- 
cultural school was established to serve the whole county. This school 
is lf)cated in the open country, not near any city or village, but adja- 
cent to a small railroad station. The school Mas opened for the year 
l{)O.S-{) with an enrollment in the high school department of ;">() stu- 
dents. A granite building with five classrooms is used for gi'ade 
.students as well as secondary students. At the time the author first 
visited the school, in April, 1915, there were 99 elementary students 
and 77 in the high school. Two teachers took care of the grade stu- 
dents in two of the rooms, while ii\c teachers were employed in sec- 
ondary work. 

Although this school was established as an agricultural school, its- 
aim is a])])arently not to train farmers in any nai*row \ ocational .sen.se, 
but to give a broad training for rural life without attempting to meet 
college entrance requirements. The course of .study which follows 
might l)e adapted to the needs of any rural comnnuiity. 



AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 



43 



Course of study. 



FIRST YEAR. 

Units. 

Agriculture 1. 

Arithmetic 1. 

EnglLsli 1. 

Botany 1. 

Manual training or domestic 

science . 4 

History . 6 

THIRD YEAR. 

Units. 
Agriculture or domestic science — 1.0 

Plane geometry 1. 

EngUsh 1. 

Cliemistry 1.0 

Physiology . 4 

Manual training or domestic 
science . 6 



SECOND YR.VU. 



Units. 

Agriculture 1. 

Algebra 1. 

English 1. 

Zoology 1. 

aiauual training or domestic 

science . 4 

History . G 

FOURTH YEAR. 

Units. 

Agriculture or domestic science 1.0 

Solid geometry and advanced al- 
gebra - 1.0 

English_. 1. 

Physics 1. 

Gei'mau^ 1.0 

Manual ti*aiuing or domestic 
science . G 



COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. 

First year. — Soils. Text: " Soils," by Fletcher. V/arren's " Elements of Agri- 
culture," used as a reference. A special laboratory manual is used. 

>>ccond year. — Farm crops. (Vegetables to be a part of the course next year.) 
Texts : " Cereals in America," and " Forage and Fiber Crops," by Hunt. 

Third T/cor.— Animal husbandry and dairying. Texts : " Types and Breeds of 
Farm Animals," by Plumb ; " Milk and Its Products," by Wing ; " Dairy Labora- 
tory Guide," by Ross. 

Fourth year. — Farm management and horticulture. Texts: "Farm Manage- 
ment," by Warren ; " Principles of Fruit Growing," by Bailey. 



COURSES IN SCIENCE. 



Herbarium of 50 spcci- 
Twcnty- 



Botany. — Text: "Botany for Schools," by Bailey, 
mens required. 

Zoology. — Text : Last half of course spent in economic entomology. 
five specimens of economic species required as a collection. 

Chemistry. — Text: Clark and Dennis. 

Pliysiology. — Text: "The Human Mechanism," by Hough and Sedgewick. 

Agricultural instruction. — The principal of the school also serves 
as instructor in agriculture and is assisted by anotlier man. Both 
instructors are graduates of the New York State College of Agri- 
culture, the assistant having just taken up the work in place of a 
man who had accepted a position in the United States Department 
of Agriculture. The principal proved to be an especially capable 
instructor and rural life leader, giving good evidence of earning the 



1 German is elective, all other sui)jects are .required. Recitation periods are for tlie 
most part 50 minutes long. In all courses in agriculture and all science except pliysiolosy 
there is one double laboratory period per week. Occasionally flield trips reQiiire a longer 
period, or a whole day. 



I 



44 DEVEI.OPMKNT OF AGRICUI.TT'RAL INSTRUCTION. 

relatively lar^e salary he received. 'Jhe assistant, on less than half 
the salary, did not g:ive evidence of liaving special aptitude for 
tea<hin<r. He had not heen away from college long enough to get 
away from college material and methods. 

Correlations. — Inasmuch as the science is taught by the men teach- 
ing agriculture, there is an excellent opportunity for correlation. 
'Jhere is also an ell'ort to correlate the science with home economics 
in the case of the girls. The students in mechanic arts work mostly 
upon farm equipment, altliough most of the laboratory cases 
and special ecpiipment for teaching were made b}' the students. 
Considerable time was given one year to the making of models 
of i>arns and other buildings. The instructor did not thiid< the 
work worth the time put upon it. He thought the time would have 
been better spent in making smaller buildings which would be of 
practical use upon tlie farm. 

The teacher of English believes in basing her work upon the 
work of the farm and other interests of the students. Some of the 
]>apors re(iuired in tlie agricultural classes are corrected as to com- 
l)osition by the teacher of English. The students gain excellent 
practice in ])ublishing a paper, "The Agriculturist of Baltimore 
County." 

Practical icork in agriculture. — Although there are 8 acres of land, 
it was not used to any great extent as a school farm when the 
school was visited in 1015. The elementary students used part of 
the farm as a school garden. \ few fruit trees and a few small 
j)lats of grasses had been planted as a basis for some work in plant 
introduction and breeding. Tn 1017, when the .school was visited 
again, the principal of the school was making a special effort to 
j)romote potato production in the community, and about half an 
acre of the school land v>as used for tests of varieties and methods 
of treatment. 

The surrounding farms are used extensively for practical work. 
The classes in horticultuiv spray and prune the orchards on sur- 
louruling farms. ()ccasi<tnally the class spends a day in Baltimore 
studying such problems as the marketing of dairy products or in 
visiting dealeis in farm nuuhincry and e<|uipment. For practical 
Avoi'k in dairying an an-angement was nuide with the local creamery 
to let students come in and secure practice in making butter and in 
handling milk and dairy products. 

At the time the school was established, before the home-project 
])lan was developed, each student was recpiired to cairv on an 
"exjM'riment " at home. .Ml of the students live at honie on farms, 
school wag:ins and pri\ate cojiveyances bringing those who do not 
live within walkin*; disliiiife. 'J"hf carlv idea of liavin<r the^e 



AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 45 

students working out experiments at home has developed into some- 
thing approaching the home-project plan, although there is no 
definite attempt to connect the home work with the instruction of 
the school or to give it adequate supervision. Projects as given 
in 1915 covered crop production, crop improvement, management 
of live stock, and farm management problems. A project may run 
through several years. Corn and potato projects are connected 
with the club work. 

In connection with the course in farm management each student 
has made a survey of the home farm showing the size and shape 
of fields, the crops planted, and the location and arrangement of 
buildings. From the data gathered papier mache models were made 
showing elevation and slope as well as the size and shape of the 
fields, worked out to a scale with fair accuracy. 

Equipment. — The basement of the buildings is equipped with 
laboratories for the work in science, home economics, and agri- 
culture. Most of the special equipment in the agricultural labora- 
tory is for somewhat technical exercises in soils and for testing 
dairy products. There was some farm equipment on hand, but 
little of it in use. A kerosene engine was used to run a cream 
separator and a feed mill, but the engine did not work well. A 
gasoline gas plant supplies gas for cooking, lighting, and laboratory 
purposes. Practical woodworking is conducted in the basement of 
the school building. No special metal work is given, although an 
outside shop is equipped with forges and anvils and such tools as 
a farm shop should have. Practice is given in the repair of farm 
equipment. 

There is the beginning of a very good museum containing ex- 
hibits of seeds and other farm materials for use in the classroom. 
A stereopticon is used as an essential feature in visual instruction. 

A fairly good library of agricultural books gives evidence that it 
is used. The students have bound many bulletins themselves. The 
teachers have personal files of bulletins which are used by the stu- 
dents. 

Community iror/c. — Inasmuch as the school liad become somewhat 
widely known for the local extension w^ork carried on by a former 
principal,^ it was rather to be expected that there would be a possi- 
bility of this work being carried on to a neglect of the regular school 
work. The principal is employed throughout the year and is 
expected to put in some of his time in extension work; he stated, 
however, that he considered his duty to his students first of all and 
that the work among patrons was but a secondary matter. Kxperi- 

1 See Crosby, D. J., and Crocheron, B. II. Community Work In the Rural High Scbool. 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Yearbools, 1910. I'p. 177-188. 



46 



DEVELOPMENT OF ACKICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 



euro had shown that it was very easy to tlovelop distrust ani(»ii<; the 
farmers and that they did not take kindly to any form of exploita- 
tion. It was not considered advisable to have the new inslructor 
lio any ^rivat amount of work among the fanniTs until, he had been 
tried out and had developed local experience. The winter short 
courses for farmers and their wives and the work for rural teachers 
in the county, inuu^urateil under a former })rincipal, had l)een dis- 
continued. 

imiSTOL COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. SEGREGANSET, MASS. 

The citizens of Bristol County took advantage of the Massachu- 
setts State law. passed in 1012, jiroviding for the establishment of 
agricultural schools and depaitments under State aid. The slIiooI 
opened its doors for the year 1913-11 at Segreganset, a small village 
in the center of the county. The .school has a delightful lo.-itiim on 
a farm of more than a hundred acres on the west bank of the Taun- 
ton Iviver. 

Purpose of the seJiool. — The school disavows any intention ot giv- 
ing a genei-al education or of iitting students for a liighcr institu- 
tion. The prospectus of the school states '' this is a school for the 
farmer's boy who intends to stay cm tlie faim and for any other 
boy who wants to become an intelligent farmer." The school is 
more distinctly vocational in its aims and methods than any school 
of agriculture the author has visited. The law prescribed that stu- 
dents shall be Iwitweeu the ages of 14 and 25 years. No prerequisite 
schooling or entrance examination is required. Students must show 
evidence of sincerity of purpo.sc and good moral character before 
they are admitted. 

Cotirnc of atudy. 



II R.ST VICMJ. 



Credits. 

Spolllnff 2 

Kii^li.sli 2 

Fiinu arithmotlc 2 

Aicricultural botany _ 2 

Woodlot mauagcment and orna- 
mental planting 1 

Sinnll fruits 1 



Credits. 

Kitclioii pardoning 1 

Farm practice and shop work 2 

I'rojoct study 5 

Project managomcut and work 7 



25 



SICCOND YKAU. 
Credlta 



SiM'lIing 2 

Kngllsh 2 

Farm measurements and mechan- 
ics 2 

Soll.s and soil fertility 2 

I'ouUry husbandry 2 



Croilita. 

Swiue husbandry I 

(Joneral farm experience 2 

Project study r* 

Project management nud work 7 



AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 



47 



THIKD YKAU. 

Crodits. 



English 

Fiuui records and accounts. 

InMH't study 

Plant diseases 

f Market gardening 



o 



3 



Orcharding 

Project study 

Project mauagemeut and work — 



Credits. 
.__ 2 



25 



FOUUTII YEAK. 



Credits. 
Kiigli-sh 2 

Farm maaagement 3 

Farm crops 2 

Seminar (subjects elective), 2 

Dairying 2 



CredilR. 



Animal husbandry 

Project study 

Project management and work. 



25 



Equipment. — The main building of the school was built at a cost 
of $30,000, the second story not having been completed. The build- 
ing has been equipped for teaching purposes at a cost of $15,000. 
Although in practically open country", it is supplied with both water 
and gas. The school farm comprises 110 acres of land which is 
much better than the average of the county. In fact, some people 
liave criticized the school because it gives practice to students under 
much better conditions than those which obtain at home. The land 
is a sandy loam partly on the river bottom, suitable for working 
early and late with a variety of crops. A A^ery good dairy barn 
Avitli two large silos has been built to replace one burned in 1915. 
This barn and other equipment of the farm, Mr. Gilbert, the director, 
claims to be within the reach of most i3 regressive farmers in the 
county. An excellent herd of Ayrshires is being built up in spite 
of misfortune by way of fire and infectious disease. Both manure 
and machinery are protected by a long shed. The poultry plant 
consists of a long laying house, an incubator cellar, and a brooder 
house, in addition to a group of colony houses located on higher 
grounds which are used by students for individual projects. The 
farm is well equipped with modern implements and machinery. 

Teaching staff. — The director is assisted by three men in addition 
to the county agent, who makes his headquarters at the school. All 
of the men have agricultural training. The director, G. H. Gilbert, 
although a practical farmer, conducted a commercial school, which 
may account for the emphasis given at the school on business train- 
ing. 

Practical luorh. — No outside labor is employed on the school farm. 
All of the work is done by students tmder the direction of the 
instructors. All students who enter without having had farm experi- 
ence are required to spend two afternoons a week in "farm labora- 
tory work." Before graduation, each student must have two seasons 



48 DEVKT.OrMKNT OF ACUIcn/n KAL INSTRUCTION. 

on some <i:()oil faiHi. This work is rcjjoitod to one of the instructors 
\vh() is <riven charj^e of the supervision of the students' work. Work 
(lone on farms other than tlie home faiin of tlie students is chissed as 
a "substitute for a project." At the time the school was first 
visited, May, 1916, over half of the r)0 boys were working on sub- 
stitutes for i)rojects away from tlie school. Twelve to 15 students 
were boardin<^^ at the school. In many ways tlie school presented tiio 
appearance of a well-manafjed farm. Students and instructors ate 
dinner to^etlier in their workin<r clotiies. There were individual 
projects and class projects beiufj carried on in all the common 
branches of farmin*!;. Althoupjli the director aims to make the farm 
fully i)roductive, as he believes it will then serve best for educa- 
tional purj)oses, it is not mana«;ed as a commercial proposition. As 
a money-making venture, the farm would be devoted to one or two 
lines instead of being highly diversified. Although the chief aim 
is to give students practice in all phases of farming, the farm serves 
well for demonstration purposes to patrons as well as students. 
There are a number of highly specialized farms in the community 
to which the students are taken frequently. When an opportunity 
is presented to place a student upon one of these farms for the 
summer, it is taken even though the student is taken out of school 
before the end of the spring term. The character of the work done 
upon the school farm is good. During the spring of 191G and the 
summer of 1017 when the school was revisited, crops and farm 
animals were in excellent condition. It is true, however, that certain 
items must be charged up now and then to educational experience 
given the students. For example, a number of rows of peach trees 
were nearly ruined in the school orchard when the spraying was 
left entirely in the hands of the students. 

Metho(h of instrurtion. — As a rule the mornings are confined to 
(he classroom, while the afternoons are silent on the farm and in the 
shop. Although some conventional class work is done, instruction 
in the school is largely individual. 

In order to encourage habits of thrift each pupil is required to 
lcce|) in permanent form an account of his personal receipts anil ex- 
penditures from the day he enters the institution. In the same 
book he later opens a business account with his project. At any time 
he can determine his loss or gain. 

The school has organized a savings bank along lines similar to tlu 
Massachusetts <(>operative banks. This bank Avas established i>ri- 
niarily to give business experience and to encourage the savings habit. 
The student's project, as a rule, will rcipiire a cash balance to draw 
upon until cash returns come in for ])roduce sold. The bank also 
provides a loan fund available to worthy students in financing their 
projects. 



AGRICULTUEE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 



49 



The extent of the students', earnings is shown in the following 
table; 



Year. 


Number 
of boys. 


Farm 
work. 


other 
work. 


Total 
earnings. 


1914 


24 
47 
69 


$1,546.72 
4,858.45 
4,991.99 


$77. 70 
651.80 
301. 00 


$1 C21 42 


1915 


5 510 25 


1916 









Extensio7i tcork. — The cooperative agricultural extension work of 
the county, sustained by Federal and State funds, is under the direc- 
tion of the school. One member of the faculty is assigned to spend 
all of his time in this work as county agent. All of the instructors do 
more or less extension Avork in connection with the supervision of 
]iome pix)jects. Considerable time is given to the supervision of 
the boys' and girls' agricultural clubs of the county and in helping 
the teachers in the elementar}?^ schools to connect the club work with 
the instruction in agriculture. -Farmers have been assisted in the 
coojDerative purchase of supplies. The following record for one 
year will indicate the scope of this work : Ten carloads of lime, three 
carloads of seed potatoes, one carload of dairy cow^s, and several car- 
loads of grain. The school has cooperated with local communities 
in holding fairs, and a number of special exhibits and meetings have 
been held at the school, including a county dairy conference, a Grange 
Geld day, a poultry day, and the county apple, corn, and potato show. 

AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF HANNIBAL (N. Y.) 
HIGH SCHOOL. 

Hannibal is a small village in the western part of Oswego County, 
N. Y., near the shore of Lake Ontario. It is in the midst of a section 
devoted to diversified farming and fruit growing. The principal 
of the school, S. R. Lockwood, who is also a farmer in the community, 
started a course in 1908 which he termed "academic agriculture." 
Although this course was of a very general and elementary nature, 
an effort was made to adapt it to the needs of the community. In 
1911 State aid was given the school and an effort made to put the 
agricultural work on a vocational basis, although both boys and 
girls Avere taking the Avork. A year later home economics Avas added 
to the curriculum, leaving only boys to the attention of one teacher, 
Avith no other subjects. In 1914 the home-project plan was intro- 
duced. The school Avas visited in May, 1915, for the purpose of in- 
vestigating the application of this plan to NeAv York conditions. 
154U70°— 20 4 



50 IJLVELOPiMK.NT OF AGRICUI.Tl'RAL INSTRUCTION. 

Home projects. — The followinfij projects wore beinjjj worked out 
by the 20 students who Avcre takinfj the course in aj^riculture : 

1. Fruit — One ncre mixed orclianl. 

2. roultry liuproveiuent of honif flock, iiitnuliu-ini,' Uliode Island Keel iilood. 

3. Poultry — Cue pair turkeys. 

4. I*ouUi-j- — Sot 50 IMyinouth Rock pp:ps In Incubator. I?ot snccessful, trying 
It the second time. 

"». Fruit — Has set out one-fourtii acn* of l>eirics. 
(». naii-ying — Keeping a recm-d of 10 cows. 

7. Poultry — Sixty-two riyniouth Kock and \\'liitc' Ix^gliorn liens. 

8. Fruit — Three acres of iK'ars; one acre mixed orcliurd. 
n. Fruit. — Twenty-four pear trees. 

10. Fruit. — Managing 4 acres of pear.s. 95 apple trees. 

11. Poultry. — Sevenly-fivo to 100 Buff Orpingtons; Iniiit nt'w liouse. 

IL'. Poultry.— Hatched 332 White Legliorn chicks from 4."»0 etigs; had .'t02 
aiay 10. 

13. Potatoes. — One-half acre Irish Cobblers. 

14. Fruit. — Oiie-fourth acre red raspberries, also one-fourtli acre lettu'-e and 
celery. 

15. Poultry. — Setting hen-s and raising chicks. 
KL Poultry. — Setting hcus to build up flock. 

17. Poultry. — Setting hens to build up Hock and caring for a fhx;k of 200. 
IS. Poultry.— Caring for flock of 58 hens. 

19. Poultry.— Caring for flock of 55 Rhode Island Reds and White Leghorns. 

20. Onions. — One-fourth acre. 

Visits were made to the homo of hoys having representative proj- 
ects. 

The lx)y having project No. 8 liad the management of 1 acre of 
ohl orchard and 3 acres of young pear trees. The orchard had been 
sprayed and the young orchard cidtivated, so that the trees were in 
good condition when judged by the standards of the district. The 
boy's mother spoke well of the work of the school. 

In |)roject No. 10 a l)oy had the management of a large part of his 
father's old orchard. At the time of the visit it looked as if there 
would not l>e much in the way of returns to give encouragement to 
the boy. The trees were old; they had been })lante<l too clo.se to- 
gether and had sud'ered from inse<'t injury in previous years, so 
that tiiere were very poor pro.sj^ects for a crop. At the time of our 
visit the boy's older brothers were spraying the orchard. 

The project listed last is one-fourth acre of onions grown by one 
(►f the yomiger student.^ on rich bottom land. The crop had made 
no headway at the time of the visit, but tiie laml had lioen put into 
excellent condition for the crop. Tf this i)roject were successful 
it doulitles.sly resulted in a larger area of onions planted (m the farm. 

.V student living on a neigiiboring farm had an acre of onions the 
year before. By applying modern methods this student succeeded 
in .securing Ti'O bushels which he sold at TjO cents per i)ushel. His 
entire cost of production, including rent of land, was $99.G9, leav- 



AGrjCULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 



51 



in^' him a profit of $295.31 in addition to cash for 309 lioiirs of hibor. 
To at'coniplish this required the working out of a difficult probjcin; 
lu'uce the project had a high educational value. It was found dif- 
iicult to get the fine onion seed to germinate, as the winds shifted 
the light soil. A system of overhead irrigation was worked out 
•\vliicli was not only helpful on this land but which was suggestive 
also of treatment for similar soils in the community. 

AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT OF HOPKINS ACADEMY, 
HADLEY, MASS. 

nistory. — This school, known earlier as the Hopldns (xramniar 
School, was established in 16G1 Avitli funds provided in the v.'ill of 
(xov. Edward Hopkins. Although the school is still known by the 
name given it in 1816, Hopkins Academy, it is one of the public 
high schools of the State, serving the village and town of Hadley. 
The agricultural instruction in this school is a national outgrowth of 
the attempt of a former principal, F. E. Heald, to adapt the course 
in general science to the interests of the students and the needs of the 
conmiunity. In 1912, a special teacher of agriculture was employed, 
the work given in the school qualifying at that time for State aid as 
an agricultural dej^artment in an existing high school. 

The students. — There are two methods of admission : First, an}- 
pupil who has passed from the grades into the high school may elect 
to take the agricultural course; second, any person over 14 years of 
age who is to take up or has taken up farming may apply for ad- 
mission to this department. His application will be given considera- 
tion in the light of preparation and attitude. 

No girls have taken the course so far. Although there were never 
more than 10 students up to 1915, in that year the class reached a 
total of 24. 

Course of study. — The number of students being relatively small, 
the classes in agriculture are combined and courses given in alter- 
nate 3^ears, as shown in the following table: 

Beginning 1912, 191'/, 1916, and other even years. 



CLASSES I AND II. 

A,;?ricultural science and projects ap- 
plied to Hadley. 

Kitchen gardening: Vegetables and 
small fruit. 

Ornamental planting: Shrubbery, flow- 
ering plants, lawns. 

Fiii-m shop work: Making and repair- 
liii;- for home and school use— hot- 
beds, cold frames, etc. 



CLASSES III AND IV. 

Agricultural science and projects ap- 
plied to Hadley. 

Farm animals: Types, breeding, man- 
agement. 

Farm buildings: Sanitation and con- 
veniences, plans, construction, u])- 
keep. 

Farm crops for keeping the aniu)als, 
rotations, balancing, cultivation, etc. 

Farm machinery and implements, their 
use and repair. 



52 



DKVKLOPMKNT OF ACRICn/nHAL INSTRUCTION, 



Dcyinniity lOlt, 1V13, JVJo, and other odd years. 



CLASKKS I ANU 11. 

Agrlculturnl Bcionce uiul projects np- 
plk'd to Hadley, 

Smull animals: Poultry, sheep, swine, 
bees — types, breeding, maiuigeineiit, 
rations, etc. 

r.uiltlings and equipment for small ani- 
mals — plans, cost, etc. 

Iltinie-K'rown c-roj^s lor .small animals — 
kinds, quantities, .seeds, soils, ferti- 
lizing, tillage, harvesting, storage. 

Farm shop work and other construc- 
tion. 



CLASSES III AND IV. 

Agricultural science ami projects ap- 
plied to Hadley. 

Fruit growing: Orcharding and small 
fruits not before dealt with. 

Market gardening : Markets, .soils seeds, 
fertilizers, tillage. 

Buildings and appliances, plans, de- 
vices, implements and machines, cost, 
use, and upkeep. 

Farm shop work and oilier construc- 
tion. 



Home-project work. — The school Avas visited by the author on May 
18, 191G, for the special purpose of studying the home-project plan 
in operation. The principal of the school seemed very much inter- 
ested in the work in agriculture and Avas so much in favor of the 
home-i)roject mctltod tliat he was conducting his own garden as a 
home project under the director of the teacher of agriculture, from 
whom lie frequently sought advice. The 16 boys who were in the 
agricultural work at that time all lived comparatively near the 
school and all had their projects at home except one who had his 
onion project upon the school grounds. The projects for the sum- 
mer of 191G were as follows: 

1. 15 fruit trees, oue-fourili acre onions. 

2. 10 fruit trees, one tenth acre onions. 

3. 2.') fruit trees, one-tenth acre onions, 55 hens. 

4. in fruit trees, one-tenth acre onions, 6 hens. 

5. 1 acre corn, one-tenth acre onions, one-tenth acre berries. 

6. 1 acre corn, one-tenth acre onions, 8 fruit trees. 

7. 1 a<re corn, 9 fowls, 39 fruit trees. 

8. One-fourtli acre potatoes, GO currants, 24 fruit trees. 

9. 1 acre corn, UO currants, 22 fruit trees. 

10. One-half acre corn, one-seventh acre berries, 25 fruit trees. 

11. One-fourth acre potatoes, 33 fruit trees, 12 pullets. 

12. One- fourth acre onions, one-half acre potatoes, 5 fruit trees. 

13. One-twentieth acre kitchen garden, G hens, 50 ducks, 1 pig. 

14. One-twentieth acre potatoes, 15 fruit trees (works al.so on poultry farm). 

15. One-half acre mangles, 2 a«'res corn (continues dairy work of last year's 
pr<0<'ct). 

IG. One-fifth acre kitchen garden, 7 hens, 32 chicks (takes care of 5 horses 
and 1 cow). 

It is interesting to note that although the scliool owns a little agri- 
cultural laud, it is turned (ncr to one of the stutlcnls for an indivi- 
dual project rather than used by the cla.ss as a whole. There are 
numbers of farms within a sli<»rt distance, however, and an abundance 
of teaching mtteiial within reach of the .school. A llock of fowls 



AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 



53 



is kept at the school and an incubator and brooder were in operation, 
the students doing some of the work. Pure-bred fowds and eggs 
are furnished students at a nominal price after interest in better 
stock is aroused through their projects. Two of the students' poul- 
try projects were visited. In both cases the students needed the 
stimulation of a visit from the instructor, as the poultry had been 
somewhat neglected in the pressure of spring work connected with 
the production of onions and tobacco. 

CJassroovi instruction. — The v.'ork of the classroom consists of a 
good deal of individual project study and informal round table dis- 
cussions, most of which are based upon a study growing out of the 
home projects. A combination laboratorj' and classroom lends itself 
very well to this form of instruction. Double periods are used at 
all times. The work for the day may be a combination period of 
supervised study and recitation, a field trip, or a class practicum. A 
small library of selected books and bulletins in good working order 
gave evidence of considerable use. A stereopticon with sets of slides, 
charts, and collections of seeds and other agricultural products were 
used as illustrative material. Appropriate pictures on the wall gave 
evidence of the purpose for which the room was used. Other mate- 
rial aided in giving the room an agricultural atmosphere. 

Most of the students taking the agricultural course are sons of 
liardAvorking farmers. A number of them could not attend school 
were it not possible for them to engage in productive labor at the 
same time. All of the projects are put upon a productive basis and 
the students encouraged to do other farm work that will add to 
their incomes. Accurate records are kept of the work done and the 
cash received. The following table shows the results of the past 
four years: 



Year. 


Number 
of boys. 


Farm 
work. 


Other 
work. 


Total 
earnings. 


1913 


9 

8 

24 

21 


$1,891.96 
1,070.95 
3,389.27 
4,687.48 


$301. 50 
168. 28 
204. 85 
146.00 


$2 193 46 


1914 


1*239 23 


1915 


3 594 12 


1916 


4 833 48 







During the year 191C the students in this school received a total 
of $278.75 as prizes for j)roject products exhibited and judging 
contests. 

Local extension work. — The work of the agricultural instructor in 
supervising the home projects of the students brings him into direct 
contact with the farmers of the community and their problems. 
Advice is sought and given as a matter of course. Inasmuch as 
Hadley is within a few miles of Amherst, the seat of tlie State agri- 
cultural college, the instructor may easily secure aid in connection 



54 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 

with problems beyond his power. 10. J. Burke, the present instructor, 
is especially well qualified for work among boys and girls. All of 
the boys and girls met .seemed to greet him with a smile. He has 
been given charge of the club work conducted among the younger 
children and is assisting the teachers in the clementar5' schools to 
lonnect their classroom instruction more closely with the practical 
club work conducted at home. Special success has been attained in 
such cooperative effort with the rural teacher at Russellville. 

As a means of teaching the students practical pruning and spray- 
ing, the orchards of the community arc used. A farmer's orduu-d 
may be sprayed or pruned as a demonstration to him, at the sanie 
time affording practice to the students, but after the students have 
learned how to do the work they must receive pay for their work 
which is done outside of school hours. In one or two cases, orchards 
which are a menace to the community as sources of infection have 
been sprayed each year by the students. 

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, 
PLATTEVILLE, WIS. 

Since the department of agriculture was established in connection 
with the Platteville State Normal School, in the fall of 1914, it has 
had a .steady growth, so that to-day it represents one of tlio strong 
normal-school departments of agriculture in the United States. As 
the school is serving in the general training of farmers in the com- 
munity as well as in the training of teachers, its organization and 
jiiothods should be suggestive to high schools as well as normal 
schools. The purpose of the instruction given may be gleaned 
from the following, printed nnder the title," Our educational creed " : 

We believe that the purpose of the ilopartment of aKriculturo of the IMalte- 
ville Stiite Normal School is to train students to use the materials of a farm 
for (licir hif^liest educational advantages, to equip students to unify the interests 
of the home and the school, nnd to promote all of the interests which make for 
the estal)lishment of permanent agriculture iu southei*n Wisconsin. In this way 
it lits students for identilication with the moral and social forces of the ct)untry 
working for its betterment. 

We further believe that culture will not suffer by evolving it through the 
niiiterial affairs of man, a study of the soil it may be. We also believe that (he 
education that is most worth while teaches vocational eHiciency, the power of 
problem solving, general intelligence, and the right moral altitude in relation 
to the useful activities of everyday life. 

l-'lnally, we believe that the purpose of the dciiartmeiit is to prepare teachers 
wlio are intelligent us to the affairs of the farm, wlio see dignity in its nwnual 
labor ; yea, sec In It the finest and most effective opportunities for training iu 
responsibility and in the reward of success that comes from faithful applica- 
tion and attention to duty. 

Organization and C(/uip>ncnt. — As the school a.spires to train 
teachers for high schools as well as elementary teachers, it is tie- 



AGKICULTURE AS TAUGHT IX SOME SCHOOLS. 55 

velopino- a staff of instructors and rather extensive equipment. At 
the time the scliool was visited, in the summer of 1917, the depart- 
ment was under a director of agricultural education assisted by two 
instructors, one of wliom had charge of the school farm. A new 
iigi-icultural and manual arts building was nearing completion. This 
brick building, Avith two stories and a basement, should provide room 
for classes, laboratories, and shops for the vocational work for some 
3'ears to come. 

The scliool farm consists of 26 acres of limestone soil typical 
of the section of southwestern Wisconsin in which the school is lo- 
cated. The farm is divided into three tracts. The first tract of 15 
acres is used for demonstrating systematic rotation of crops and 
other modern practices in crop production. No experimental work 
is attempted. The second tract of 8 acres is used in a rotation of 
forage crops for the maintenance of live stock at the school. A 
third tract of nearly 3 acres contains a cottage for the farm manager, 
poultry houses, a small orchard, a school garden of half an acre, 1 
acre for truck crops. The school garden is used by the pupils of the 
training school maintained in connection with the normal school. 
The remainder of this plot is used as an out-of-door laboratory in 
connection with the instruction in agriculture. The farm also fur- 
nished material for inside laborator}' work and classroom instruc- 
tion. The farm has a good team of horses and farm implements and 
machinery suited to a small farm in Wisconsin. 

A modern dairy barn is planned with the idea of maintaining one 
dairy cow^ for each acre of land. The product of these cows will be 
sold as market milk and cream in Platteville. The students will be 
expected to do all the w^ork. As the school is located in a dairy sec- 
tion, dairy husbandry is emphasized. The idea of maintaining a 
dair}' herd is to give practice in milk production under conditions 
approaching the ideal, yet wathin the reach of the farmer. Cows 
have not been purchased to represent the dairy breeds to be used in 
judging. Instead of spending money for that purpose, the school 
has purchased a truck fitted as a van to accommodate a class of 
about 20 students. In the community there are excellent dairy herds 
representing the four leading breeds, and pure-bred draft horses, 
sheep, and swine. If there is to be a lesson in breed t5^pes or prac- 
tice judging, it is a relatively simple matter for the teacher to take 
the class out to a neighboring farm. 

When the school was visited early in July the school garden and 
all the field plots Avere ill excellent shape. The farm was then being 
used in connection with the summer school. 

Courses of study. — The department of agriculture acts as a service 
department in giving one or more courses in elementary agriculture 
to each prospective teacher enrolled in the rural-.school department. 



56 



DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTinAI. IXSTRUCTION. 



In 191G-17, 50 young women received siicli instruction. The depart- 
ment also offers a general institute or short course of one Aveek in 
December and a winter course of nine weeks for young men who 
can not attend the regular school session. A correspondence course 
in agriculture is also offered. 

To students regularly enrolled for agriculture the department 
oflers three courses. The nature of these courses will be seen from the 
following outlines taken from the department circular : 

Tuo-j/car course for hiijli-achool r/raduatcs. 
FiK.ST Ykau. 



FIRST SKMKSTKK. 

Hours. 

Animal husbandry 5 

Weeds 2 

Cheniistry H 

Insect pests 2 

IMant diseases 1 

Farm carpentry 3 

18 



SKCOND SKMKSTKn. 

Hours. 

Physics 5 

Horticulture 3 

Psychology 5 

Plant physiology 2 

Blacksmithing and cement con- 
struction 3 



IS 



Second Ykau. 



Agricultural education 5 

Engtish composition 5 

Farm mechanics 5 

Soils 5 

Teacliing 5 



Agricultural bacteriology 2 

Dairying .' 3 

Farm arithmetic 5 

Crops 5 

Teaching 5 

Physical training 2 



27 



Three-year course tor Jiif/Ji-scliool graduates. 
First Ykar. 



FIRST SKM ESTER. 

IlOiUS. 

Animal husbandry 5 

('homistry 5 

Weeds 2 

Insect pests 2 

Plant diseases 1 

Farm carpentry ^ 8 

18 



SECOND SEMESTER. 

Iloiirs^, 

Physics 5 

Psychology 6 

Plant physiology 2 

Horticulture 3 

Blacksmithing and cement con- 
struction 3 



IS 



Second Year. 



Agricultural education , 5 

Ktigllsh composition T) 

Farm mechanics 5 

Soils 5 

Poultry 5 



Physfiography r> 

Crops ft 

Farm arithmetic S 

Advnnce<l civics .T 

Physical training 2 

22 



AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOI^S. 



57 



Third Ykak. 



Hours. 

Agricultural economics 5 

Algebra 5 

Teaching 5 

School administration 5 



20 



FTours. 

Agricultural bacteriology 2 

Dairying 3 

Trigonometry and surveying 5 

Teacliiag 5 

Elective 5 



20 



Five-year course for (/radnatcs of the eighth f/radc of the clcmeninry schools. 

FiusT Year. 



FIRST SKMKSTKR. 

Hours. 

Arithmetic 5 

Geography 5 

Reading ^ 5 

Elementary agriculture 5 



SECOND SKMESTEE. 

Hours. 

Algebra 5 

American history .5 

Grammar 5 

Vegetable gardening 5 



20 
Second Yicar. 



20 



Algebra 5 

Civics 5 

Composition 5 

rhysiology, hygiene, and farm 

sanitation 5 



Plane geometry .5 

IMusic 5 

Zoology 3 

Bee.s and beekeeping 2 

Composition 5 



20 
Third Year. 



20 



Elementary physics 5 

European history 5 

Solid geometry 5 

Poultry 5 



Physiography 5 

European his-fcory 5 

Literature 5 

Farm practice 5 



20 
Fourth Year. 



20 



Animal husbandry 5 

Ghemistry 5 

Weeds 2 

Insect pests 2 

I'hmt diseases 1 

!';irm carpentry 3 



Physics 5 

Psycliology 5 

Plant physiology 2 

Horticulture • o 

Blacksmithing 3 

Cement construction 2 



18 
Fifth Year. 



20 



icultural education 5 

Liiglish composition 5 

Farm mechanics 5 

Soils 5 

Teaching 5 



Agricultural bacteriology 2 

Dairying 3 

Farm arithmetic "> 

Crops o 

Teaching f) 

20 



58 PKVLLOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 

COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. 

1. l^lciiientary ap;riculture. 

Tliis course is an introduction to the later diffeientiated fom-sc;, 
in a<rrirulture. In an elementary ^vay, students are ,ii;i\en ianiiliarity 
uith farm animals, farm crops, soils, weeds, insects, dairying^, etc. 
The school farm and fjarden furnish the out-of-door laboiatory. 

2. Wgetablc gardening. 

The main purpose of this course is to teach students to operate 
successfully their home gardens. Some of the topics presented in 
classroom instruction are the purposes and values of home gardens, 
the ordering of seed catalogues, the selection of vegetables and the 
l)est arrangement of them in the garden, the ordering and testing of 
seeds, the making of a planting calendar, the construction and op- 
eration of a hotbed, the cultivation and protection of garden truck 
against noxious insects and plant diseases, and the best methods of 
harvesting, marketilig, and preservation of products from gardens. 
The practical work is done in the home gardens. 

3. Physiology, hygiene, and farm sanitation. 

In the production of healthy folks there are two considerations: 
Tiie indi\iduals themselves and their surroundings. The first part 
of the course deals with the development of sanitary and hygienic 
habits, and the second part with the proper construction and manage- 
ment of the farmhouse to insure proper heating, ventilation, 
lighting, cleanliness, sewage disposal, etc. Some time is given to the 
sanitary housing of farm animals. 

4. Bees and beekeeping. 
Wisconsin is one of the States in the front rank in the productio 

of honey. In this course, which is a supplement to the course in 
zoology, students are taught the varieties of bees and the life his- 
tory of each sex in a hive, the conditions that favor the production 
of a maxinuim amount of honey, the structure of a hive, the summer 
and winter (are of bees, the control of insect and fungous enemies, 
and the marketing and uses of honey. The apiary on the school 
farm furnishes the concrete materials for the course. 

.'). Poultry. 

This course deals with the description of breeds and varieties of 
poultry; the production and marketing of eggs; the fattening and 
marketing of ]ioidtry ; fall, winter, and stmnner care; incubation and 
brooding. Actual practice in jxudtry management is given in the 
])oultry ranges of the school farm. 

0. Farm practice. 

Students taking this course will as.-^ist in the regular farm opera- 
tions under the direction of the farm manager, who will instruct 



4 



AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 59 

the students as to the practical application of the scientific princi- 
ples of agriculture. Some of the operations which will be taken 
up are : Care and feeding of horses, cattle, swine, and poultry ; such 
field operations as plowing, harrowing, disking, drilling grain, plant- 
ing potatoes and corn, and api)lication of manure and other fer- 
tilizers ; and miscellaneous operations as gardening, caring for small 
fruit, and orchard practice. 

7. Animal husbandry. 

The first part of this course treats of the types and breeds of 
horses, cattle, swine, sheep, and poultry. The origin, improvement, 
introduction to this country, and the characteristics of each breed 
are emjihasized. A thorough study is made of the relation between 
the form or conformation of the animal and its purpose. After the 
development of these principles, standard score cards are used in 
judging stock in Platteville and vicinity. The second part of tlie 
course considers the compounds of animal nutrition; the digestion 
and assimilation of food; the excretion of wastes; the nutrient values 
of such feeds as ensilage, straws, roots, tubers, grains, and seeds ; the 
proper care in preservation of farm feed; and the compounding of 
balanced rations for special results in particular types of animals. 
If students come from the farm, they will be encouraged to interest 
home folks in conducting feeding experiments. Feeding statistics 
will be collected from local experimenters, for study and inter- 
pretation. 

8. Weeds. 

This course makes the student acquainted witli the weeds of the 
farm and garden ; the root, stem, fruit, and seed characteristics that 
facilitate their dissemination; the best method for eradicating eacli 
weed, such as cultivation, rotation, and spraying; and the different 
farm crops. Each student is required to make an herbarium of 
the weeds studied, and a collection of their seeds. 

9. Insect pests. 

This course involves a stud}^ of the external structure, classifica- 
tion, and local distribution of insects; a consideration of insects in 
their relation to farm products, more especially horticultural prod- 
ucts; the life history and habits of injurious and beneficial species; 
collecting, identifying, and mounting some of the most common in- 
sect pests ; general and special methods of control ; and practice in tke 
preparation and application of control measures. 

10. Plant diseases. 

The annual damage in tliis country in the destruction of crops by 
plant diseases is about $500,000,000. In this course the student is 
made acquainted with the bacteria and fungi that are responsible for 



60 DEVELOPMENT OF AORICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 

the coiiiinoii discasos of fiinn crop?, tlio use of resistant strains, and 
the composition and application of fungicides. 

11. Plant physiology. 

In this course the life processes of the plant, as far as possible, are 
interpreted in terms of physics and chemistry. The emphasis in the 
study of these life processes Avill be Avith the plants of the highest 
order, the seed plants. The development of the subject takes this 
order: The study of the plaiit cell; the intake of materials by the 
plant through the forces of iml>ibition and osmosis; the outgo of 
plants through transpiration, guttation, and secretion; the transloca- 
tion of food materials; the study of food necessary for the nutri- 
tion of plants; the synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats; 
independent versus dependent plants; the tligestion and assimilation 
of foods; and respiration and fermentation, the two great phases of 
destructive metabolism in the plant. The structure of the plant will 
be emphasized only as it is necessary to understand iis pliysiology. 

12. Horticulture. 

This course is designed to give the pupil a knowledge of the plan- 
ning, planting, and cultivation of the home vegetable garden: the 
care and management of small fruits and their adaptation to Wiscon- 
sin soils and climate; practice in the construction of hotbeds and cold 
frames: laboratory work in i>lanting and cultivating the school gar- 
den; pruning and spraying of orchards in the connnunity ; and judg- 
ing and scoring fruits and vegetables. 

18. Agricultural education. 

This course has for its object a consideration of the specific purpose 
of agricultural instruction in its relation to the general aims of edu- 
cation; a discussion of tha organization of agricultural courses for 
high schools; the proper use of the school garden or the school farm; 
the unification of the interests of the school and the home through 
home project work, short courses in agriculture, social center work, 
fai'mers" institutes, and high-school fairs. This course also includes 
a study of the teaching process in relation to accepted sociological, 
biological, and jisychological principles. 

J 4. Soils. 

'I'his course offers instruction in the origin and composition of 
soils; methods of measurement of their varying physical conditions; 
the relation of texture of different types of soils and water content 
to the best time for cultivation; the history of the mineral nutrient 
theory: the source, loss, and ways of restoration of each of the 10 
essential elements, with particidar emi>hasis on the elements, nitrogen, 
phosplMtrus, potassium, atid calcium; the use of fertilizers; and the 
work of bacteria in making available the food materials to the plant. 



AGRICULTUEE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 61 

Exporiments will be performed in the laboratory and on plats to de- 
termine the water-holding poAvers of different soils, the capillary 
movements of waters under different conditions, and the possibility 
and different methods of conserving soil moisture. 

15. Agricultural bacteriology. 

In this course the students are made acquainted with the principles 
that underlie the science of bacteriology. Drill in the technique of 
bacteriological study is given to determine the structure of certain 
representative bacteria of characteristic groups, and to note their 
effects on various culture media. After this preparation students 
make bacteriological examinations of Avater, soil, milk, and butter. 

16. Dairying. 

Since the major interest of the people of this communitj'^ is dairy- 
ing, much is made of this industry. Sanitation in the production, 
transportation, and distribution of milk is emphasized. Excursions 
are taken to inspect the equipment and methods of dairy practice, 
butter making and cheese manufacture. Careful determinations 
are made of the amount of butter fat, casein, albumen, sugar, and 
ash in milk. Students from farms are encouraged to improve dairy 
herds by enlisting the cooperation of their home folks in keeping 
records of daily milk production, and by making regular laboratory 
tests of butter fat in the milk. As soon as the dairy laboratory in 
the new building is available students will receive training in the 
pasteurization of milk and cream and the making of butter and 
cheese. 

17. Crops. 

The study of crops includes a consideration of the origin, botanical 
characters, the leading tj^pes, and varieties of the leading crops of 
this region ; the preparation of the soil, planting, methods of cultiva- 
tion, systems of rotation, harvesting, food values for man or animals, 
and principles and methods of breeding. Corn and grains are judged 
by the methods recommended in Wisconsin. The plant and seed 
characters of the different crops are acquired through laboratory 
study. Variety tests and some of the best methods in crop produc- 
tion are demonstrated on the school farm. Excursions are taken 
to show^ the effects of soil, methods of cultivation, and rotation on 
the different crops. 

Methodic of distinction. — In connection with using the school truck 
an effort is made to utilize the resources of the community for teach- 
ing : Pruned 238 apple trees, 32 currant, 12 raspberry, and 21 goose- 
in dairy husbandry spent several days as an apprentice in the Platte- 
ville creamery as a part of his course. Some of the students gained 
such proficiency in this Avork that one of them was retained by the 



1- 



62 DEVELOPMENT OY AGRK'ULTURAI. INSTRUCTION. 

local civnincrv at n f^ood salary ior the .summer, while others re< 
ct'ivoil jrooil positions in near-by creameries, upon recomniemialioi! 
of the manapT. The work in horticulture was made equally a»' 
l)ractical. In the sprin*; of 191G the class accomplished the follow- 
ing:: Pruneil 238 apple trees, Ji2 currant, 12 raspberry, and 21 iro<»se 
berry bushes, and 19 shade trees; sprayed 150 trees; treated seed oat 
for smut; made the hotbeds and took char<;e of the vegetable garde 
on the school farm. The students have Iniilt the poultry house and 
a shed for the farm machiner}'. In nuiking hotbeds and farm build- 
ings the work is in cooperation with the department of manual train- 
ing, the courses of which are taken by the students in agriculture 
There is an organized effort made for cooperation and correlation o 
subjects in other lines, particularly with the science courses and i 
English. 

Local rxtc7ision work. — In addition to offering short courses and 
correspondence courses in agriculture, the department staff give 
lectures on agriculture and rural life before farmers' institutes; 
farmers' clubs and rural social centers. Students give assistance to 
the rural schools and to boys' and girls' clubs in such practical work 
as con.struction of hotbeds and aid teachers in giving special lessons. 
In addition to pruning and spraying of trees, they have tested seed 
and milk and have treated oats for smut and potatoes for scab. The 
instructors have also assisted in connnunity fairs. 

Results. — The results of the local extension work is that the school 
"• takes well " with the farmers of the community, and the demand 
for help is beyojid the power of the department to satisf}'. Although 
the department had been in operation but three years, when visited 
in 1917, it had trained 41 young men as teachers of agriculture. Tiie 
enrollment of the regular agricultural students had increased from 
24 the iirst year to M. 

Much of the success of the department is due to its director, FrecL 
T. Ullrich, who although trained i)rimarily as a teacher of science 
has adapted and applied his scientific training to educational and 
agricultural problems in southwestern AVisconsin. 

THE BERRY SCHOOL, MOUNT BERRY. FLOYD COUNTY, GA. 

The history of the Uerry School, although one of the mo^t inter- 
esting chapters in the development cf the South, is Uk) long a story 
to relate at this time. The scheme grew out of an effort on tlu 
part of Mi.ss Martha Berry to broaden the lives of the people living 
near her in the mountain section of (Jeorgia. A start was nu>de with 
a Sunday school in a little log cabin. The sc1h)o1 proper was opened 
in an unpretentious way in 1!)()2. To-day the school owns over 5,(.)0( 
acres of land, a score of buildings with e(iuij>n:ent reaching into sev 
cral hundred thousand dollars, and is taking caie of several hundred 



AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 68 

farm boys and girls. The school is still a private institution incor- 
poratcil under the laws of Georgia. Although it has a considerable 
endowment, it is dependent u]Don the bequests each year for its run- 
ning expenses, the income from the fees and labor of the students 
being inadequate. Althougli the Berry School for Girls is a sepa- 
rate institution from the Berry School, which is for boys only, the 
two are on the same grounds and under the same management, hence 
they will be considered together. 

Purpose of school. — A visit to the school impresses one wath the 
air of industry and the lack of the aristocratic atmosphere which 
prevails in many of the private schools of the South. The reason 
for this is in the nature of the students selected and the dominating 
purpose of the school, which is " to develop efficient Christian man- 
hood by affording to worthy boys and young men of limited means 
from rural districts the opportunity to earn an education combining 
mental, moral, and industrial training." Candidates for admission 
must "(1) live in the country; (2) have attained the age of 16 
years; (3) be financially unable to attend school elsewhere; and (4) 
furnish evidence of physical, mental, and moral soundness." All 
students are required to do at least 16 hours of w^ork a week. Stu- 
dents who do not take kindly to work are not allowed to remain at 
the school. All of the w'ork, including the erection of many of the 
buildings, is done by the students. A needy student may remain at 
the school working for pay during the summer, although students 
are not encouraged to remain at the school over 20 months in any 
one continuous period. The school affords a wonderful opportunity 
to young men who are willing to work, an opportunity to secure 
training tow^ard efficiency in workmanship and at the same time to be 
directed in physical, mental, and moral development which should 
mean much to the northwestern section of Georgia. The history of 
the graduates of the school will show that it has meant much not 
only to Georgia but also to other sections of the South in sending 
forth inspired leaders who know how to do things. It is interesting 
to note the student body and the contrast between the incoming stu- 
dents and those about to graduate. 

Wo7'h in agriculture. — Although the school gives general indus- 
trial training for rural life, it is more nearly an agricultural school 
than many of the special schools of agriculture. It is the aim of 
the director to make it more and more an agricultural school. In 
1917, when the school w^as visited, agriculture was organized as a 
division coordinate with mechanics, academic subjects, and adminis- 
tration. 

Of the 5,000 acres of land owned by the school, about 60 are used 
as a campus, 1,000 are under cultivation, 500 used as pasture, and 
the remainder in woodland. All of the agricultural land is in charge 



64 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 

of the ilopartment of af^rioultnre. The farm is equipped witli nu)(l.| 
crn huildinfTi^ and machinery, iiu'liidinfjj a hothouse and an up-to-date 
dairy. At the time the school was visited students were woritinf^ on 
extensive poultry buildings. Tiie live stock consisted of 100 head 
of dairy stock, including calves and heifers, '200 heafl of swine, 150 
sheep, 14 mules, G horses, and a flock of pmdtry. 

AVhile the farm is operated as a money-making venture, educa- 
tional values are not lost sight of. The use of student labor is not a 
serious problem, because two of the essential points in selecting 
stuilents is that they shall want to work and need to Avork. Each 
student is required to work approximately 16 hours a week. Addi- 
tional work with pay is given needy students. The pay depends upon 
the character of the work done. As the farming is done on an ex- 
tensive scale, using modern machineiy and methods, most of the 
farming operations afford new experience to the students, many of 
whom come from little " one-mule " farms in the mountains. 

The following account of a day's work at the school will indicate 
something of the manner in which the school is conducted : 

The active day at the Berry School begins early. At 4 o'clock the kitchen 
fireman arises and goes to build the fires in the ranges. A half hour later the 
cooks and the morning dairy squad go to tJieir work. The latter milk the cows 
and bring tlie milk from the barn to tlie dairy house before breakfast, which 
comes at C.'JO. 
■ Meanwhile, the full-time farm boys, who are working one term in order t 
l»ay for their board and tuition the next term, have arisen, eaten breakfast, 
and gone to their work by G o'clock. The students arise at G o'clock and have 
breakfast at G.30. 

At 7 o'clock the real work of the school day begins, ar.d lasts until ."> o'clock 
in the afternoon, with intermission for chapel and dinner. Tlie school is 
divideti into three groups as nearly equal in size as possible. Each day two of 
these groups attend classes, while the third works for eight hours. A few 
students, however, have assigned work at other limes. From 4 until rt.SO 
o'clock in the afternoon is recreation period. This is the time for games, exer- 
cise in the gymnasium, reading, or other recreation for those not on duty. 

Sufiper is served at O.-SO, followed by evening iirayers. At 6.30 ou school 
days the eveinng study period begins, lasting i.iiil 0.05. During this time 
i-ach student must be in his room and studying. .\ relaxation periiKl is given 
from 9.05 to 9.30. At 9.30 silent time begins, and : ; 10 lights go out and every* 
one is in bed except the night watchman, who still ! s to make his rounds. 

On Saturday there is a social hour instead of the stiuly hour, and 
on Siiuilay chiiiH-h ser\i<cs and Sunday school instead of the regular 
routine. 

lu onh'r to accouiiiKxhitc an atMitional iiuniber of boys who desire 
to wdi'k their way through school, a farm of 500 acres is being de- 
veldped altout 5 miles fr(»m the main school at the foot of Mount 
Lavender. Here about 'J.'* boys, for the work done for four or five 
months, are gi\('ii cr«'dit for board and tuilidu at the regular school. 
While doing this farm work for the ])urpo.se of getting a start to- 



4 



AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 



65 



ward their regular schooling they are given instruction five nights 
a week in agriculture, arithmetic, English, reading, and spelling. 

Near the school a model farm is operated, under the direction of a 
former student, as a demonstration to the pupils and people in the 
community. Students also assist in the work of this farm. 

As suggested, the girls live and have their schooling apart from 
the boys. Agriculture and other industrial w^ork form a large part 
of the curriculum of the girls' school. When the school was visited 
the girls were taking entire charge of six dairy cows and making a 
part of their product into butter and cheese. The cows and the 
stable were in excellent condition, in better condition than the main 
dairy at the boys' school. The garden of 4 acres was also in better 
condition than the main truck gardens of the schools. The girls 
were proud of their showing on the farm, as they were of the excel- 
lent rugs and baskets they were making. 

Although some agriculture is required in all of the courses for boys 
and girls, the following course is offered for students who desire 
agriculture in the four-year high school. 



Freshman. 

*Agrkulture 

*Bible II 

^English V 

Gymnasium 

*History II 

*Mathematics V 

Meclianics III (fall term). 

Science III 

Singing 

Spelling 



Hours. 
4 



Junior. 



* Agriculture III__. 
*Bible IV 

♦English VII 

Gymnasium 

History IV 

Mathematics VII. 

♦Mechanics V 

Musio 

♦Science VI 

Spelling 

Writing 



4 

2 
4 
2 
4 
4 
8 
2 
6 
2 
2 
* Subjects 



Sophomore. 

*Agriculture II 

*Bible III 

♦English VI 

Gymnasium , 

*History III and civics II 

Mathematics VI (fall term)__ 

*Mechanics IV 

Science IV (spring term) 

Singing 

Spelling 

Writing 



Hours. 
4 
2 
4 
2 
4 
4 
8 
4 
2 
2 
2 



Senior. 

*Agriculture IV 

*Bible V 

English VIII (spring term). 

Economics 

Mathematics VIII and IX_ 

Music 

*Science VII 

Siielling 

Writing 



required. 



154070°— 20- 



6ft DEVELOPMENT OF AGRTCULTI^RAT. INSTRUCTION. 

HIGH SCHOOL COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. 

Agrhultvre I {farm rrop.i). — For freshmen in the hi<rh sihool. 
A general course in a;L;ricultui-e l>eariii<; on: The soil — jreneral 
classification, elementary coniiX)sition of plants and their sources 
of supply, sources of iiitro<ren. pliosj^horic acid and potash: rela- 
tion of tlje soil to plants; plant analysis. Plants — ^(>neral classitica- 
tion, duration of life, how they grow, feed and produce, sexuality, 
crosses and hybrids. (Trenenil fieM nops — lioK iciilture and jrardcn- 
ing; forestry; applied botany. Text used: Southern P'iehl (rojw, by 
J. F. Du«rg^ar, and Southei*n (iardeners' Manual, by J. S. Kewraan. 

Affrieulture II {anhxal hv^thnrnlry). — Ft>r sophomores in hi«fh 
school. I'his course is desiiifned to take ui> in detail animal life on 
the farm and ti'eats: The impoi-tance of the subject, breeds of 
horses, c»ttle, sheep, poultry, and swine. Animal type, judjiinj^, 
heredity, Ijreedin^;;, selection, pefli«!:i'ees, feedinjr, care, erjnipment, 
meat on the farm, preserving eggs, bees and honey. Text used: 
Beginninjxs in Animal Husbandn'. by C. S. Pluml). 

Ayriculture III {dairying). — For juniors in high st^hool. A 
practical course in this important subject treating on: The origin 
of domesticated cattle, the dairy type and breeds, starting a dairy 
herd, selection of cows and bulls, calf raising, development of the 
dairy heifer, management of dairy cattle, feeding for milk produc- 
tion. stal)les for cows, handling of manure, common ailments of 
cattle, milk records, testing milk, butter making, and milk as a food. 
Text used : Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, by C H. Eckles. 

Ayrlcultui^e IV {farm tnanagejnent) . — For seniors in high s<'hool. 
The farm as a business enterprise and as an avocation, personal char- 
acteristics desirable in a farmer, profits to be expected from farm- 
ing, cost of living on farms, some thoughts for the farm boys, types 
of farming, maintaining the fertility of the soil, capital, methods of 
renting land, farm labor, farm equ,ipment, farm layout, rotation, 
marketing, farm records and accounts, some successful farms. Text 
used : Farm ^lanagement. by C. F. Warren. 

Farm mechanics V (mechanics). — This course, for high-school 
pu|)ils, consists of a detailed study of field machinery, farm power 
and transmission devices: the operation, care, and maintenance of 
.such machinery being studied thoroughly. The following list will 
sei\ e as an index to the work covered : Plows, stalk cutters, har- 
rows, manure spreaders, fertilizer distributors, planters, mowing 
machines, rakes, binders, ensilage cutters, steam engines and Iwilers, 
gas engines and the farm tractors. Text: Farm Machines and Farm 
Motors, by I)avidson and Chase. 

Ill all of these courses a textbook sequence is not followed closely. 
An ellort is made to use the farm and shops as a laboratory and to 
use a seasonal sequence in the classroom that the classroom lesson 



AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IN SOME SCHOOLS. 67 

may be correlated with farm practice. An effort is made also to 
correlate agriculture with other subjects, as will be seen from the 
description of a course given to students before they enter the regu- 
lar high-school courses : 

Country Life. — For fourth year grammar school. The aim of this roiirse 
is to take the everyday activities of the ixjys on the farm and make these the 
basis for ai'ithmetic, science, and agriculture. For exiUiiple : The institution 
sells a beef to a butcher in Rome. The arithmetic work for the day is based 
on the business operations involved in the sale of the beef and the buying 
of feed with part of the receipts. The beef is sold on foot at 7 cents per pound. 
There is first a discu.ssion as to why it does not bring 7* cents, which Is the 
the top of the market for this day. The good points of beef are brought into 
consideration.. Cotton-seed hulls, bran, and shorts have been purchased. The 
price of each is stated. It appears that the price of the cotton-seed hulls was 
much higher. The reasons are ascertained. The relative food value <->f the 
three feeds is discussed, as are the reasons for mixing them in the ration. 

Very likely the second part of the lesson for the day is devoted to gather- 
ing the com from a plot in which an ear-row test has been made by the 
boys during the summer. The corn is husked, sacked, and weighed and the 
result of the experiment determined. 

IMost of the boys in this class have studied very little arithmetic in the 
rural communities from which they come. The practical way in which arith- 
metic, agriculture, economics, and current events are blended enables the 
quick assimilation of what otherwise would be dry and indigestible material. 
No definite textbook Is used during this year, but the students are encouraged 
to acciuiiulate and read bulletins on the subjects discussed in class. 

Weekly excursions to various farm activities through the first three years 
of grammar school are conducted by the instructor, which serve as a basis 
for the more advanced work In the fourth year. 

THE MANASSAS INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR THE TRAINING OF 
COLORED YOUTH. MANASSAS, VA. 

This institution is typical of a relatively large number of smaller 
schools maintained by northern philanthropists for Negroes in the 
South. This school is located near the historic* Bull Run battlefield, 
near Manassas, which is the seat of Eastern College and one of the 
district agricultural schools of Virginia. Although the school may 
be classed as a secondary school, elementary instruction is given. 
The following from the school circular suggests the primary purpose 
of the school: 

The aim of the school is to train for useful lives tliose boys and girls who 
from necessity or desire must enter as early as may be Into some self-support- 
ing occupation. It alms to teach Negro youth the need and importance in a 
clemocratic society of all kind.s of useful labor intelligently done and as far as 
possible to send them back to their homes efficient teachers and leaders in in- 
dustry and civic welfare. Through work as well as through books it aims to 
teach the value and dignity of work. The students at(en<l to the upkeep and 
care of the school's 200-acre fiirra, the f'Rrm Implements, the stock, the dormi- 
tories and cottages, • • *, Particular stress is laid upon the study and 



68 



DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 



J 



practice of agriculture and upon Uie adequate (raining and preparation of 
lynchers for the colored elementary rural schools. l'>ut whatever courfse, the 
iiiius Is not alone to make younjj men and women craftsmen; the aim Is to 
make craftsmen better men and women. 

Courses of study . — Students must be 14 years of a^e upon entrance. 
It is considered essential for the student to have the efjuivalent of 
clcnientary sdiool trainin^ij before enterinj^ tlie industrial courses, I 
hence students who have not had this preparation are required to ' 
take a preparatory course in the elementary subjects. Although 
there is fairly good equipment for woodworking and ironworking 
and other industrial training given in addition to blacksmithing and 
carpentry, this training does not enter into the agricultural course as 
will be seen from the following: 

Outline of the agricultural course. "^m 

[Figures indicate tlie iiiimlicr of 45-nilinito periods a week.] 



FIKRT YEAH. 

American history 

Arithmetic 

IJotany 

Chemistry (elementary) — 

Field practice 

Lan^'uaRC 

Military drill aii<l athletics. 

Ileading 

Sui»ervised study 



Terlods. 

:i 

___ 3 

___ 2 
___ 3-i 

n 

___ 3 

5 

— _ 15 



Til I III) YEAH. 

Periods. 

Accounting H 

Algebra 5 

Animal husbandry ^ 4 

Field pra<'tice 32 

(Jrammar and c<»nipnsition ;"> 

Military drill and atldeties 3 

I'hysies 3 

Supervised study H 



SECOND YEAR. 

I'ertods. 

Agronomy 3 

Botany 2 

Chemistry of soils 2 

Dairy husbandry 2 

Field practice 33 

Grammar 5 

Literature 5 

Military drill and athletics 3 

Poultry husbandry 2 

Sujiervised study 14 

FOl'KTU YEAR. 

Pcrloda. 

Conunerelal geography 2 

Composition and rhetoric 5 

Farm management — Land tenure. 3 

Field practice 80 

Geometry 3 

Military drill and athletics 3 

Rural economics — Sociology 3 

Supervised study 22 



Instruction in agriculture. — The agriculture of the classroom is 
supplementary to farm work. For much of the farm work wages are 
l)aid. Several acres of tlio farm arc turned oxer to the stuilouls to use 
as individual garden i)rojects. The scliool was visited two dilFerent 
years, each time the garden plots being in excellent condition and 
paying a profit to each student. To be sure, the plots were not all 
cared for eijiially well, and wliile the profit was small in stmie cases, 
all students were stimulated l»y the hope of a financial rewanl. It 
was interestiii<r to note the diU'erence in attitude toward farm work 



AGRICULTURE AS TAUGHT IX SOME SCHOOLS. 69 

on the part of the colored students and the white students in the same 
town. The 200 acres at the colored school were kept in good condi- 
tion and were a source of considerable revenue to the school, the work 
being done largely with student labor. At the district agricultural 
school the school owned five acres for instructional purposes. Al- 
though a part of the garden was planted by the students, the care of 
the school land was given over mostly to the janitor, Avho already 
had more than he could do well. 

As most of the produce of the farm is used at the school, the stu- 
dents learn much in storing and preserving food for winter use. One 
year the following products were canned: Five hundred gallons of 
tomatoes, 120 gallons of peaches, 75 gallons of pears, 70 gallons of 
peas, 40 gallons of sauerkraut, 40 gallons of mixed pickles, 3 barrels 
of string beans in brine, and 12 barrels dried. In addition to the 
above the farm yielded 100 bushels of sweet potatoes, 435 bushels of 
potatoes, 100 barrels of corn, 230 bushels of turnips, 100 bushels of 
stock beets, 67 bushels of Avheat, 30 bushels of carrots, 31 bushels of 
parsnips, 17 bushels of onions, 5,000 head of lettuce, and 7,000 head 
of cabbage, the latter stored for Avinter use. The last time the school 
was visited, in the fall of 1917, an agricultural exhibit representing 
mostly the products of the farm was symbolical of abundance and 
indicative of thrift as well as good husbandry. Due to war condi- 
tions, there had been a shortage of seed beans of garden varieties. 
The school had responded to the need and there were bushels of 
bright beans of many varieties, all well cleaned and in excellent 
shape. The school Avas then planning to extend the season of practi- 
cal garden work by putting in extensive hotbeds and frames for foi;c- 
ing vegetables. 

The corn produced is fed mostly to swine on the farm, the pork 
being consumed at the school. The students do the killing and cur- 
ing of the pork. The live stock was not of the best breeding. It 
seems difficult to get Negroes to appreciate and properly care for 
well-bred animals. At Hampton, however, there are some of the best 
herds, cared for in as good shape as at any school visited. 

The classroom instruction as obserA^ed Avas A'ery good. The stu- 
dents, although not timid, were especially well behaved and respon- 
sive in the presence of strangers. The teachers paid special atten- 
tion to A'isual instruction. The making of models, so often confined 
to our primary instruction, was used effectively Avith the older stu- 
dents. The use of pictures and charts on the walls seemed overdone 
to some extent. 

Community worh. — The school is made an educational and agricul- 
tural center for the surrounding section and to some extent for north- 
ern Virginia. Teachers' and farmers' institutes and other organiza- 



70 DEVELOPMENT OF AtJRlCULTURiiL INSTRUC5TI0N. 

tions bring together rural leadei*s in the toinmuiiity and give opiK)r- 
tuiiity to leaders from tlic outside to reui-h them. Proximity to the 
National Capital gives opportunity foi- local people to hear men and 
women of national importance frequeiitly. The school exhibit and 
agricultural lair mentioned was the occasion of many of the local 
fai-mers getting not only stimulation from their neighl)ors but aLso 
from men from Government departments who were intereated in their 
work and social problems. 



I 






Chapter IV. 
FEDERAL AID FOR VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE. 



HISTORY OF THE MOVEMENT. 

The Dolliver, Davis, and Page hills. — The passage of the Morrill 
Act and subsequent acts giving Federal aid to the agricultural col- 
leges has been made a precedent for repeated attempts to extend 
Federal aid for agricultural education. The first of these attempts 
to aid the secondary schools was in 1910, when Senator James P. 
Dolliver, of Iowa, introduced a bill providing Federal grants " to 
cooperate with the States in encouraging instruction in agriculture, 
the trades and industries, and home economics in secondarj^ schools; 
in preparing teachers for those vocational schools in State normal 
schools." About this time there was a strong movement on foot to 
secure Federal aid for extension departments in all of the land- 
grant colleges. This movement was in accordance with recommen- 
dations made in 1909 by a committee of the Association of American 
Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. The recommenda- 
tions of these committees later, in 1910, were incorporated into the 
Dolliver bill, and furnished a starting point for the bill passed in 
1914 as the Smith-Lever Act. Representative Charles R. Davis, of 
Minnesota, championed the Dolliver bill in the House of Representa- 
tives, hence the bill is sometimes referred to as the Davis bill. In 
1911 Senator Carroll S. Page, of Vermont, advocated Federal aid 
for vocational education in secondary schools along lines similar to 
those of the Dolliver bill. The Page bill and other efforts to aid 
school instruction lost out for the time being because public interest 
and congressional favor were centered on Federal aid for agricul- 
tural extension work for the colleges. After such aid was secured, 
in the passage of the Smith-Lever Act, effort was again put forth 
to secure Federal subsidy for vocational education in the secondary 
schools. 

Commission on national aid to iwcational education. — In January, 
1914, Congress passed an act authorizing the President to appoint 
a commission of nine members to " consider the subject of national 
aid for vocational education and report their findings and recom- 
mendations not later than June 1 next." This commission consisted 
of the following members: Senator Hoke Smith, of Georgia; Sen- 
ator Carroll S. Page, of Vermont; Representative D. M. Hughes, 

71 



72 PKVKLOPMKNT 01' AOriCT'LTrT^ATv IXSTKUCTION. 

of (n'oi-jiria ; IJepresentjitive S. D. Fess, of Ohio; Jolin A. Lapp, of 
Indiiina: Miss Floronoe M. Afarsliall, f)f Now York Cit}'; Miss 
A«riios Nostor, of Chiraj^o; Charles A, Prossor, of Minneapolis, 
Minn. ; and Charles H. Winslow, of AVashinf^ton, D. C. 

As a result of the efforts of tlio commission ^ l)ill3 were intro- 
duced into the Senate by Senator Hoke Smith, of Georj^ia, and into 
(he House by Representative Dudley M. Huf^hes, of the same State, 
which finally passed both houses as "An act to provide for tiie pro- 
motion of vocational education; to provide for cooperation with the 
States for the promotion of such education in a^jriculture and the 
trades and industries; to provide for cooperation with the States in 
the preparation of teachers of vocational subjects; and to appropri- 
ate money and regulate its expenditure."' This act, known as the 
Smith-IIuf^hes Act, became a law wlion President Wilson gave it his 
api)roval in February', U)17. 

THE SMITH-HUGHES ACT. 

Purpose of the cut. — The act which went into effect July 1, 1917, is 
in reality an effort on the part of the Federal Government to stimu- 
late tlie States to provide a system of secondary education in agricul- 
ture, the trades and industries, and home economics and to extend 
the benefits of these forms of vocational education to all those over 
14 years of age. By extending financial aid to the States the Federal 
Government is not establishing a national system of education, but 
it does purchase the right to participate in the control of State sys- 
tems in that it sets up standards which the States must meet. 

Financial aid e.vtcndcd. — In order to stimulate the States to ex- 
pend money especially for vocational education, the act makes avail- 
able certain funds from which the States are reimbursed for money 
expended, providing they meet the reipiirements of tlie act aiul reach 
the standards set by the Federal board of control. The following 
table ^ shows the total amounts appropriated : 

> Koport of the rommission on National Aid to Vocational Education. House of 
Koprcsuntatives. liocunicnt No. 100-1, 1014. 

» From Federal Board for Vocnlional Education. Bulletin, 1917, No. 1. P. 02. State- 
ment of policies. 



FEDERAL AID FOE VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE. 



73 




74 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTBUCTION. 

A study of this table will 1»ring out the fact that in achlition to the 
$-J()o.0()0 appropriated annually for the use of the Federal hoard, 
there are three separate funds, viz: (1) For salaries of teachers, 
supervisors, and directors of agriculture; (2) for salaries of teachers 
of home economics and industry; and (3) for the salaries and niain- 
(enatice of teacher training. These funds are extended to the States 
on a fifty-fifty basis, i. e., each dollar of Federal funds must be 
niatihed by a dollar from the State or h>cal community. 

If the States do no more tiian match the Federal funds, there will 
be available after 1926 an annual appropriation of $14,3134,000, in 
addition to the $200,000 used by the Federal board. As a matter of 
fact man}'^ of the States are doing more than meeting the Fe«leral 
ap|>ropriation. In other words, in these States the act is working iis 
it was intended to do, in stimulating the States to liberality with re- 
gard to State aid for vocational education. 

It will be noted also that the funds increase year by year until 
the maximum for salaries of teachers is reached in 1025-20. The 
maximum for teacher training is reached earlier, in 1920-21. The 
act provides also that unless the teacher training fund is used by 
June 30, 1920, the other funds will not be available. These provi- 
sions arise out of the urgent and immediate need for teachers with 
special training for these lines of vocational training. 

The funds for teachers of agriculture are allotted to the States on 
the basis of the relation of the rural population of the State to the 
rural population of the United States, the funds for salaries of teach- 
ei"s of trades and industries and home economics on the basis of urban 
pojiulation, and the teacher training funds on the basis of total poi)u- 
lation. The population of some States is so small that the alloted por- 
tion of the total appropriation would not be worth considering, hence 
a special appropriation was made to bring the minimum appropria- 
tion for eaclf of the three funds to $r»,000 for each State. For ex- 
ample, the portion of the $500,000 alloted to Connecticut, in 1917-18, 
for salaries of teachers and sui)ervisors of agriculture was $1,104.33 
based on rural population. To bring this allotment to $5,000, it was 
necessary to a]>propriate S3.,s35.0T from the special fund appropri- 
ated to guarantee the minimum allotment. 

Federal and State administration. — The act created a Federal 
Board for Vocational Education consisting of the Secretary of Agri- 
culture, the Secretary of Commerce, the Secretary of Labor, the 
United States Commissioner of Education, and three citizen mera- 
bois appointed by the President. One of these citizen members 
represents manufacturing and coinmorcial interests, and one a rep- 
re.sentative of labor. In addition to the admini.stration of this act, 
the Federal board is expected to make investigations relative to 



FEDEKAL AID FOR VOCATIONAL AGRICULTUKE. 75 

the various aspects of vocational education involved in the act. Such 
in\esti<^ations may be carried on in cooperation with the various 
Federal departments. 

Any State to take advantage of the Federal funds available must 
accept the enactment and designate or create a State board to co- 
operate with the Federal board in the administration of the act 
within the State, Provisions are made for the Government to accept 
the act to designate or create temporary boards of control in States 
where the legislatures did not meet in 1917. 

^Staie standards. — The act does not go into detail with regard 
to a general standard for \'ocational education, but leaves that for 
the Federal and State boards to work out for each State. Each 
State is expected to prepare a plan to submit to the Federal board 
showing the kinds of schools, equipment, courses of study, methods 
of instruction, qualifications of teachers and supervisoi-s, plans for 
training teachers, and plan for supervision. 

Although it is expected that each State will work out a plan to 
meet its individual needs, the act places several safeguards upon 
the appropriations that they- may be spent for only those phases 
of education for which they were intended. The standards set for 
vocational agriculture may be summarized briefly as follows: (1) 
Federal money appropriated for the teaching of vocational agri- 
culture can not be spent in the teaching of other subjects necessary 
to build a well-rounded course of training. (2) The Federal ap- 
propriation for the salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors 
of agriculture must be spent only on salaries, equipment, and main- 
tenance. One-half of the salaries must be provided from State and 
local funds. In the case of training and local funds for teachers, 
however, Federal money may be spent for one-half of the main- 
tenance of such training. (3) Vocational agriculture must be under 
State supervision and control. (4) It must be of less than college 
grade and be designed to meet the needs of persons over 14 3^ears of 
age who have entered or who are preparing to enter upon the work 
of the farm or of the farm home. In order that the instruction 
may be practical the act stipulates that the schools shall provide for 
directed or supervised practice in agriculture, either on a farm pro- 
vided for by the school or other farm, for at least six months per 
year. (5) Although the act leaves to the State boards the minimum 
qualifications of teachers to be approved b}" the Federal board, it 
6ti[)ulates that in the training of teachers and supervisors such train- 
ing shall be given only to those persons who have had adequate 
vocational experience or contact in the line of work for Avhich they 
are preparing themsehes as teachers, supervisors, or directors, or 
who are acquiring such experience or contact as a part of their 
training. 



76 DKVKLOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTIOX. 

OPERATION OF THE SMITH-HUGHES ACT. 

The Federal Board for Vocational Kdxication. — Soon after July 
1, 1917, when the act went into efTeot, the President appointed the 
three citizen members of tlio Federal Board for Vocational Educa- 
tional. The board was orfijani/ed as follows: David V. Houston, 
Secretary of Afrriculture, rliairman; William C. Kedfield, Secretary 
of Commerce; "William B. Wilson, Secretary of Labor; P. P. Claxton, 
Commissioner of Education; James P. Munroe, of Massaclnusetts, 
representing; manufactures and commerce; Charles A. Greathouse, 
of Indiana, re])resentin<r a<;riculture; and Arthur E. Holder, of Iowa, 
represent in<]^ labor. 

The board elected Chailos A. Pro.sser, then president of Dunwoody 
Institute, as director. Mr. Prosser selected the followinf]j as assistant 
directors to form the executive staff: Layton S. Hawkins, agricul- 
tural education; Lewis IT. Carris, industrial education; F. G. Nich- 
ols, commercial education; Josephine T. Berry, home economics edu- 
cation; and Charles 11. A^'inslow, research. The entire country was 
divided into five geographical regions, with an agent for each 
branch of Aocational education in charge. 

As the vocational education act is couched in terms rather general 
it became necessary at the outset for the Federal board to secure 
legal interpretations and to issue statements of policy regarding the 
administration of the act. As a rule the board has been broad in 
its interpretation of the act, but it has at all times made it clear 
that Federal money could be used only for bona fide training for 
useful employment in the vocations for which the act provided. In 
the case of agriculture, for example, the board will not sanction the 
use of Smith-llughes funds for the ordinary form of academic agri- 
culture usually taught in the high school. The work of the school 
must be intimately related to the supervised practice given on the 
farm which the act requires. 

Considerable time during the first jear has been spent in going 
over the plans submitted 1)V the various States. The board has not 
attempted to standardize the kind of instruction to be given in the 
Nation at large, but has left each State to work out a ])lnn which 
would seem best fitted to its local needs. 

The board has not done as much investigational work in tiie field 
of agricidtural education as it would most likely have done in normal 
times. No sooner was the board organized than it was called upon 
to aid in the emergency training of war workers along certain tech- 
nical lines. Recently (Jime 10, 1918) Congress pas.sed the bill 
known as the Smith-Sears Act which delegates to the Federal board 
the duty of reeducating disabled soldiers in some useful employ- 
ment. This work of Nocational rchabililation includes a«rricultural 



^ 



FEDERAL AID FOR VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE. 



77 



training. It promises to be a work of enormous magnitude and one 
which may atl'ect materially future plans for vocational training. It 
seems reasonable that the machinery established for the training of 
the cripples of war will be continued in operation for the benefit of 
the cripples of industry, if not for general vocational training. 

Although most of the publications of the board for the first year 
deal with emergency war training, a general bulletin was published 
giving a statement of policies and one dealing with the organization 
and administration of agricultural education. In May, 1918, the 
board began the publication of the Vocational Summary, a monthly 
paper dealing with its various lines of work. 

Without doubt the w^ar handicapped the establishment of schools 
and departments of vocational agriculture. Not only was it difficult 
to secure teachers Avith proper training, but many of the older stu- 
dents who would have desired vocational training under normal 
conditions, either joined the Army directly or entered the Students' 
Army Training Corps. The following table ^ shows the results ob- 
tained up to the present time : 

Table 2. — Statisfics of Federal-aided agricultural schools for year ending 

June 30, 1918. 

AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS AND DEPARTMENTS. 





United 
States 
total. 


Region. 




North 
Atlantic. 


Southern. 


East 
Central. 


West 
Central. 


Pacific. 


Schools 


1,741 

15, 187 

895 


794 

3,649 

303 


285 

4,648 

240 


423 

4,681 

220 


45 

921 

62 


39 

1,288 
68 









TEACHER TRAINING DEPARTMENTS. 



Centers... 
Pupils... 
Teachers. 



40 


8 


9 


11 


7 


1,534 


155 


193 


1,010 


79 


116 


18 


24 


30 


19 



1 Adapted from the Second Annual Report of the Federal Board for VocaUonal Edu- 
cation, 1918. 



Chapter V. 
TRAINING TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 



DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL TEACHLNG. 

General versxt^ specM 7neaninf/. — The term agricultural education 
has, in time^ past, and in the minds of many people to-day, a vei-y 
liroad application. It has been linked closely with the freneral de- 
velopment of ajj^riculture, including the work of agricidtural so- 
cietie,<!, fairs, the entire field of the agricultural colleges, the experi- 
ment stations and dei)ai'tments of agriculture, and the work done 
through the rural press and agricultural publications. To-day the 
tendency is to consider agricultural education a phase of education 
linked with school instruction, and related training. In other words, 
the tendency is to limit the meaning with all the limitations of tho 
term education applied in a technical sense, and to further restrict it 
to organized training in agriculture. In the future it ought not to be 
so dillicult for a worker in agricultural education to establish him- 
self as a specialist in education rather than an agriculturist. 

/demand for trained teachers. — The greatest drawback to placing 
agricultural training upon a better basis and to extend its usefulness 
in all grades of schools has been the lack of teachers trained specifi- 
cally to teach agriculture and related brandies. Most of the failures 
have resulted from a lack of preparation on the part of teachers or 
the failure to secure proper supervision or direction of the work 
because no one could be obtained to take hold of this work in the 
right wiiy. Too often school ofl&cials have yielded to a i^opular 
demand for agriculture in the schools onlj^ to fail because the 
teachers who attempted the work were not properly trained. In 
recent years many have felt that the greater part of the res|>onsi- 
bility for success rested upon the teacher, and more attention has 
been given to securing teachers with special training. Educational 
anthorities have begun to realize that the place to begin efTective 
agrit'ultural education is in institutions for training teachers. So 
far it has not been possible to get young people to train for work 
not in operation, hence it has been impossible to establish teacher- 
training departments before the work was established in the schools. 
The two lines are developing together, but until teacher-training 
departments turn out a finished product the schools are in a sense 
piittitig up with makeshifts. 
78 



TEMNIISTG TEACHERS OF AGEICULTURE. 79 

Attemfts to meet the demand. — Where special teachers haA^e been 
eiKiployed attempts have been made, as a rule, to secure graduates 
of agricultural colleges. Although these men may have had prac- 
tical as well as technical training in agi*iculture in the past, as a rule 
they have not had training as teachers. In very few cases have they 
had special training in teaching agriculture. For the most part 
they teach largely as they have been taught. The college training 
in agriculture may have been good or bad for college students, but 
neither the subject matter nor the method, at its best, was suited to 
students in secondary schools. In a large number of schools visited, 
the author has seen the same subject matter which the teacher liad 
in his college course given out to high-school students in much the 
same way that the teacher received it in college. The lecture method 
has been abused to a great extent. While textbooks have been used 
more extensively in recent years, t(X> often they have been books 
not organized as textbooks at all, or books not written for second- 
aiy schools. 

General agriculture has been taught mostly by teachers who have 
had little or no training in agriculture ; often by teachers of biology 
or other sciences. Where these teachers have had special aptitude 
and training as teachers some very good work has been done, but 
too often they have been like the teachers of aginculture without 
special training in pedagogy. Where they have applied the labora- 
tory method it has been for the most part vsdth the teclmical aims, 
methods, and materials of the college. However effective it might 
have been for training scientists, it has not gone far in the training 
of farmers nor in aiding boys and girls to adjust themselves to rural 
conditions. 

As a reaction against the lack of practical training given by such 
teachers in general courses, there has arisen a demand for agriculture 
to be placed upon a basis strictly vocational. In securing teachers 
for vocational agriculture some of the States have demanded that 
applicants must be first of all practical farmers. In many cases 
they have taken men who have had little technical training in 
agriculture and no special training as teachers. They have appre- 
ciated the need of such training, however, and have in some cases 
made pro\dsions for the teachers to make up their lack of training 
in both lines while in service. 

Development of departments of af^ricitltural education. — Depart- 
ments of agricultural education in connection with our agricultural 
colleges and universities have been the product of a gradual growth. 
In fact, there has been, up to the present time, a great range of 
variation in their organization and the work they have been at- 
tempting to do. In some cases they have been an outgrowth of 



i 



80 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 

scliools or departments of education, giving more attention to the 
rural scliools and the problems of teaching agriculture and other 
subjects. In other cases schools and colleges of agriculture have 
gradually given more attention to the problems of the elementary 
and high schools and the preparation of teachers in such sul)jectg 
as agriculture and nature-study. Most of the agriculture taught 
in the secondary as well as the elementary schools in the past has 
been of a general and elcniontarv nature. Some of the States have 
required such agricultural instruction in rural schools, and some 
have required certain training in agriculture on the part of teachers. 
The colleges and normal schools, in the past, have established cx)urses 
for teachers in summer sessions and correspondence courses to meet 
this demand. For the most part these courses have involved sub- 
ject matter rather than method. Some institutions have followed 
up this work by furnishing materials and suggestions upon teaching 
to teachers in service. The New York State College of Agriculture 
at Cornell University hns done a notal>le work along this line. For 
nearly 10 years it has been sending out its Kural School Leaflets, and 
in otlu>r ways aiding elementary teachers, before courses were de- 
velo})ed for training teachers for the secondary schools. lentil very 
recently, in the discussions of agricultural teacher-training little 
attempt has been made to distinguish between elementary and second- 
ary work. Special college courses for training teachers of agri- 
culture were siini)ly suggested as possibilities.^ 

With regular four-year courses established through the stimulus 
of State aid, a demand arose for teachers es]iecially trained for the 
secondary schools. Some of the Southern States, however, which 
were first to inaugurate secondary agricultural schools, have been 
the last to establish dei)artnients of agricultural education and to 
develop courses especially for teachers. Departments of agricul- 
tural education were established and the work first placed upon a 
professional basis in the following institutions: University of Min- 
nesota, Michigan Agricultural College, Massachusetts Agricultural 
College, and the University of California. 

Agricultural education upon a profcxs'ional hcsis. — The training 
lequired for the successful teaching of agriculture in secondary 
.-schools is such that it nuiy be considered professional. The training 
given especially to dexclop teaching ability should be considered a 
phase of professional education, whether inq^arted in a school or de- 
partment of education or in a school or department of agriculture. 

> See Crosby, D. J., Training Courses for Toachers of Afjilculturo. 11. S. Dcpnrlment 
of Agriculture. Yearbook, 1907. Jnckson, IC. H., Aj(rl(iilturiil TrnlnlnK Courses for Em- 
ployed Teachers. U. S. Dopar(ni«iil of AgrKulturc. liullotin, UU3, No. 7. 






TRAINING TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 81 

A WORK FOR COLLEGES. 

As a rule teachers of agriculture are required to have college train- 
ing for teaching agriculture in the secondary schools. Departments 
of agricultural education are confining their efforts more and more 
to training teachers of the secondary schools, leaving the training in 
agriculture for elementary schools largely to the normal schools and 
high-school teacher training classes. Departments of agricultural edu- 
cation are also offering courses for general leadersliip in rural life and 
are aiding in the training of the following groups : Superintendents 
and supervisors of rural schools, boys' and girls' club leaders, county 
agents and other extension workers, supervisors and directors of vo- 
cational agriculture, and secretaries for rural connnunity centers. 
A beginning is being made also in the special training of college 
teachers of agriculture. Few agricultural colleges have reached the 
stage where they are ready to act upon the realization that college 
instructors need special training as teachers. Verj' recently, how- 
ever, the committee on instruction in agriculture of the American 
Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations^ has 
strongly recommended the improvement of methods, ending its report 
with the recommendation " that immediate and serious attention be 
given for means of improving the quality of teaching in the college 
course in agriculture, and as one of the means to that end it would 
urge the dcA^elopment of strong departments of agricultural educa- 
tion." 

Factors involved. — {a) Agricultural training. A teacher of agri- 
culture should have a broad general training in agriculture involving 
(1) scientific or technical training based on the natural sciences and 
their direct application to agriculture; (2) practical training and 
farm experience. As a result of the criticism that the training of the 
agricultural colleges is not sufficiently practical, more attention has 
recently been given to the requirements in practical agriculture 
both as a prerequisite to college courses in agriculture and as a part 
of such courses.^ {h) Professional training. Training in educa- 
tion should involve: (1) A general foundation in educational psy- 
chology, and the general principles and methods of education with 
particular application to the adolescent ; (2) special training in teach- 
ing agriculture in the secondary school; (3) opportunity for practice 
teaching and practical experience in leading young people and work- 
ing with farmers, (c) Correlated general training. Inasmuch as 
the teacher of agriculture is expected to be a leader in rural life, his 

1 See 20th report of this committee. In P.lst Annual Report of the Association, 1017. 

' See IGth and 17th reports of tlie committee on instruction in agriculture of the 
American Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations in the 27th and 
28th Reports of the Troceedings of the Assoclatiou, 1913, 1914. 

154070°— 20 G 



> 



82 DF.VELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 

traininij; should include: (1) Such subjects closely allie<l to a^ni- 
culture as rural sociology and rural economics; (2) such practical 
training for expression as public speaking and agricultural journal- 
ism ; and (3) such general training for citizenship, cultural, and 
avocational pursuits as time will permit. 

Linufations of a four-year course. — It is obvious that if we demand 
scientific and practical training in both agriculture and education, 
in addition to a broad training for leadership, we can not accomplish 
tliis in a four-year college course. A great deal will depend upon the 
previous training of the student. Students entering the agricultural 
courses may be grouped into three classes as follows: (1) Those who 
have been reared on a farm and have had an agricultural course in 
a secondary school; (2) those who have been reared on a farm and 
who have not had an agricultural course in secondary schools; (3) 
those reared in the city who have had neither instruction nor prac- 
tice in agriculture. Students from the first group should furnish by 
far the best nuiterial for teacher-training courses and may secure 
the requisite technical and professional training in a four-year col- 
lege course. ITie training of the other groups should be supple- 
mented with additional instruction and practical experience. As a 
matter of fact many students do not fit entirely into any of these 
groups and as yet little attempt is made to classify them according 
to their previous training and experience. The average agricultural 
college student needs the full four years for agricultural and general 
training, leaving his professional training to be secured in addition! 
to that. At the present time .school boards in most States consider * 
themselves fortunate to get a college graduate who has had an agri- 
cultural course and an aptitude for teaching to take the secondary! 
work in agriculture. Even in States which require training in edu- 
cation for certification, this requirement is often waived for the 
teacher of agriculture. Special certificates are given to tho.se who 
have not been trained as teachers. As a rule, however, strong depart- 
ments of agricultural education have been developed only in those 
States which require training in agricultural education of their 
teachers of agriculture. 

Tlie present shortage of teachers and the tendency to take teachers 
without special training has made it necessary for departments of 
a'iricidtnral education to turn their attention to training teachers in 
s•M'^•ice. In n)any cases those now teaching agricuhure and related 
s<-iences furnish good nuiterial for an early supply of trained 
teachers. 

Training in service is given in a number of ways, chief among 
which are the following: Summer sessions and winter short courses, 
coirespondence courses, conferences, institutes and extension courses, 
and itinerant teacher training. Some of these methods may naturally 



TRAINING TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 83 

overlap and may be used purposely in combination. The placing of 
agriculture upon a vocational basis, through the stimulus of Federal 
aid, has called for many teacliers not familiar with vocational 
methods. These men have been placed in service and organized 
methods used to improve their training as well as their teaching in 
connection with the supervision of their work. In some cases the 
itinerant teacher training is done directly by the State supervisor, 
in other cases by the department of agricultural education of the 
teacher training institution. In still other cases the training is given 
through cooperation of the supervisory forces and the teacher train- 
ing institution. 

LAND-GRANT COLLEGES AND THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS 

OF AGRICULTURE. 

Extent and nature of the tcorh given, — A study of the teacher- 
training curricula of the State agricultural colleges^ made by the 
Bureau of Education, in 1917, showed that while nearly all of the 48 
institutions claimed to offer four-year curricula for training teachers 
of agriculture only 40 of them had work worthy of inclusion in such 
training. The Bureau of Education does not regard the work bona 
fide unless the curriculum includes at least a two-hour course in 
special methods of teaching agriculture and at least one three-hour 
course in either psychology or education. 

The work given varies from a special four-j^ear curriculum in agri- 
cultural education to a regular agricultural curriculum with courses 
in education taken as electives or an educational curriculum with 
courses in agriculture taken as electives. The requirements for 
graduation vary from a total of 120 semester hours to a total of 216 
semester hours. The hours required in agriculture vary from none 
to 77 and in education from 10 to 26. Many of the curricula leave 
no time for electives, while Cornell University, which requires no 
courses in agriculture, leaves 45 per cent of the student's time free 
for elective subjects. The history of education occurs oftener in the 
educational courses than any other course. Only 29 institutions 
offered facilities for practice teaching, and many of these were make- 
shifts when judged by high standards. Only 34 institutions sup- 
plied information concerning the number of students registered in 
agricultural education. Of the total of 859 students, 18 Avere Avomen. 
Of the 513 students reported as graduating with professional train- 
ing in agricultural education. 299 were known to be engaged in 
teaching or supervising agriculture in the school. 

Stimulus of Federal aid. — The Nelson amendment to the agricul- 
tural appropriation bill, which was passed in 1907, increased the 

1 .Tavvis, C. D. Vocational Teachers for Secondary Schools. Bureau of Kducation. 
BuUotiQ, 1017, No. 38. 



) 



84 DKVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 

Fi'doral appropriation for the land-fjrant colleges and proviiled that 
'' s;ii(l <<)lleges may use a portion of this money for providing courses 
for the sjx'cial jiropnration of instructors for teaching the elements 
of agriculture and the meclianic arts." Some of tlie iniititiitions have 
used these funds in establishing departments of agricultural educa- 
tion, others have used them in a general way in their work of aiding 
teachers of elementary agriculture, while a large nuniher have done 
nothing until very recently in the way of agricultural education. 
Many of tlie agricultural men have taken the attitude that if the 
prospective teacher knew his subject he could teach it and that no 
professional training is needed. In institutions having schools or 
departments of education, agricultural students who expected to 
teach have been encouraged or required to take general courses in 
education, especially in States where such training was required for 
certification. The student in such cases was expected to make his 
own application of education to agriculture. 

Placing agriculture upon a vocational basis in the secondary 
schools is doing a great deal to strengtlien the demand for special 
courses in agricultural education. Tlie Smith-IIughes Act not only 
raises the standard for teachers so tiuit special training is required 
but also ])rovides funds for that training. By 1021 there will be 
$1,()()().0()() of Federal funds available for teacher training, GO per cent 
of which may be used for training teachers of agriculture, this sum 
to be duplicated from State funds. Since the Federal act was 
passed most of the States have either organized separate depart- 
ments of agricultural education or have extended those already or- 
ganized. In nearly every case some kinds of cour.ses in special 
methods of teaching agriculture have been established. There has 
been considerable difficulty in securing men capable of handling such 
courses. To do justice to the work given, those in charge should have 
not only technical and practical training in botii agriculture and 
education but also have practical experience in farming and in the 
supervision and teaching of agriculture in secondary schools. Some 
of the men giving teacher training work are agricultural men who 
have worked into educational lines since graduation, while others 
are men of training and experience in general education who have 
taken up agriculture in recent years. As the line of work which they 
are directing is new, it is not to be expected that the older men have 
sj)ecial training for it. 

T}/j)U<d (Jcpnt'ttncntH of (u/rh iilturnl i'ducat'ion. — F\erv depart 
ment of agricultural education is organized along lines somewhat 
different and has different conditions to meet within the institution: 
mo.st of them, however, nuiy be grouped into one of the following 
classes: (1) Departments in universities having schools or depart- 
ments of education; (2) departments in indeiiendent agricultural 



TRAINING TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURB. 85 

colleges which do not train teachers for general subjects. The de- 
partments described at this time are fairly typical of these classes. 

DIVISION OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION: UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 

Organkatlon and scope. — Agricultural education in the University 
of California is organized as a division in the college of agriculture. 
Because of the fact that the university maintains a college of 
letters and science in Avhich general subjects are taught, and a 
school of education Avhich gives professional training, the division 
of agricultural education gives only special training in the teach- 
ing of agriculture and closely related general science, nature-study, 
and rural education. Inasmuch as the division also has charge 
of correspondence courses in agriculture with related extension 
courses, a comparatively large staff is maintained, although the 
teacher training has been conducted mostly bj^ tAvo men. Recently 
the university has entered into cooperation with the State Board 
for Vocational Education to train teachers at the University Farm 
School at Davis and at other points in the State and to conduct 
itinerant teacher training among teachers in service. 

Facilities for teaching. — In times past the division gave more 
attention to training for elementary work Avith school gardens, 
nature study, and boj^s' and girls' club work. School gardens 
are still maintained in Berkeley at the university and used in 
elementary teacher training, especially during the summer session. 
Prospective teachers of agriculture in the secondary schools up to 
the present time have been taken to the university farm at Davis, 
where a six-weeks' course in farm practice has been given in various 
farm operations that all teachers may become familiar with ordinary 
farm practice. High schools in the State are selected for a five- 
weeks' course in practice teaching. 

Courses of stiidy. — Students who desire to secure a recommenda- 
tion from the division as teachers of agriculture in high schools 
of the State are expected to take a four-year course in agriculture, 
wdth agricultural education as a major. The work of the first two 
years is the same as for other students in agriculture. Although the 
work of the junior and senior years is largely elective, the student 
is expected to have completed, in addition to three stipulated courses 
in agricultural education, at least one course in each of the following 
agricultural divisions: Agronomy, pomolog}', plant pathology, 
entomology, farm management, animal husbandry, dairy industry, 
poultry husbandry, and veterinary science. 

In addition to opportunity for special studies and individual 
work in agricultural education, the following courses were given in 
1917-18. 



86 DEVELOPMENT OF ACHK Tl/ir 1!AF. I N>Ti;i(TI(»X. 

(n) Agencies for niriil progress: Coiiiilry life problems, ;i«reiicie8 
lor rural progress, and the best means ot" utilizing these, agencies 
for (lie iiuprovcment of rui'al coinmunitios. Lectures, assigned 
rca*lings. and reports. 

(b) Elements of agriculture, nature study, and school ganleii;s: 
Aims, material, and methods used in agricultural instruction in the 
elementary and gratle schools; teaching plans; educational value 
of the school garden; the home garden and the value of the school 
garden; the home garden and the value of home project work in 
agricultural education. Practical garden work on the campus. 

(c) High school farms, gardens and comnmnity work : Lectures, 
reports, and conferences on the utilization of land in connection 
with agricultural teaching; means by which the facilities of a 
school can be brought into intimate and helpfid relation with the 
agricultural interests and home life of the community su])porting 
the school; practice in planning and exe<'uting school farm prob- 
lems and demonstrations. 

(d) General science ami first-year agriculture: The aims and 
values of a general science cour.se in the high school; comparative 
study of typical courses and exj)Osition of the peculiar adaptations to 
the general science work of an elementary agricultural course in 
which plant study forms the basis of continuity; the equipment, 
nature, and amount of practical work needed in the course, includ- 
ing field trips and excursions. Outdoor and laboratory exercises 
are considered in detail. 

{e) Agriculture in secondary schools: Agricultuial teaching, in- 
cluding its history; the teaching methods to be employed, and the 
equipment needed. A general consideration of the educational aims 
and values of the work and the organizatit)n of the course is fol- 
lowed l)y a detailed study of materials and methods involved in the 
teaching of elementary agric^dture, dairying, animal hu.sbandry, 
horticulture, etc. Lectures, readings, and assigned practicums. 

(/) Rural school administration: Readings and classi-oom discus- 
sions of the fundamentals of rural school <^>rganization, management, 
and improvement. 

(<7) The jiractice of teaching agriculture: A five-weeks' practice 
course in stdected high schools of the State. Making of les.Mm i)lans, 
practice teaching reports and conferences with supervising teacher and 
instructor. Sui)ervi.sed i)ractice teaching; the observation of methods; 
and numagement of class and laboratory instructicMi by the local 
teacher. By arrangement with the department of education prop- 
erly prepared students may satisfy the re<|uiroments in practiio 
teaching for the teachers" reconinientlation by taking this course in- 
stead of I'!t|ii(ii(ion 'J<il (The practice of teaching). 



TRAINING TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 87 

As a rule several of the above courses are given in the summer ses- 
sion. No work was given for elementary teachers during the sum- 
mer of 1918. Usually large classes of public-school teachers register 
for this work. 

Students. — In 1916-17 there were 37 men and 5 women registered, 
with a major in agricultural education. In 1916 there were 20 
graduates in agricultural education, 13 of whom secured positions 
to teach or supervise agriculture. 

DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION: CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 

Organization and scope. — For a nimiber of years the New York 
State College of Agriculture has been doing a great deal to aid 
teachers in service with their problems of elementary agriculture 
and nature study. This work is now continued by the department 
of rural education, organized in 1914, although the main function 
of this department is to train teachers of agriculture for the second- 
ary schools. Although the university maintains a school of educa- 
tion, the department of rural education in the college of agriculture 
is mostly independent, giving its general methods courses within the 
department. In addition to a force of workers who take care of 
the extension work in the State, three men are employed for the 
training of teachers of agriculture in secondary schools, one for 
general methods and two for special methods in agricultural educa- 
tion. 

Agricultural education is offered as an option to agricultural stu- 
dents in the junior and senior years. In common with other agri- 
cultural students, considerable latitude is allowed for election of 
subjects to students preparing to teach agriculture. For graduation 
there is required, however, approximately the following: Cultural 
subjects, 14 hours; science, 38 hours; psychology and education, 14 
hours; elective, 54 hours; making a total of 120 hours. The elec- 
tives are selected with the advice of the department. 

Facilities for teaching. — For practice teaching, seniors are placed 
as apprentices to some of the best teachers in the high schools of the 
State for half a year. Near-by schools and departments are used 
for practice by the classes in agricultural education. For example, 
at a time when the author visited a vocational department at Inter- 
laken a class in agricultural education from tlie co'Iege at Ithaca 
had just been there to study the planning and equipment of the 
l)uilding used for vocational agriculture. One of the students of 
the college came to the school regularly to give the high-school stu- 
dents instruction in forge work. 

The department is well equipped for practice in collecting, mak- 
ing, and using teaching materials, especially along the lines of visual 
instruction. 



88 DEVELOPMENT OV AfiRICULTI'RAL INSTRIH'TION.. 

Courses of studij. — The following courses ■were oflered in the third 
term, hetrinnin^ June 3 ;ui(l ending September 28, 1918: 

{(t) l*i-iiK'iples of tejuhinfx and practice — topics considered: The 
ai)plication of princii)les of educational psycliolo«ry and the philoso- 
phy of education to the problem of school practice; the nature of 
study and its princijial factors: the teacher's relation to the learn- 
ing process, motivation, psychological versus logical thiidiing, in- 
terest and attention, motor control; tiie problem and the project as 
basis for the organization of materials; tlie use of first-hand sensory 
materials; the selection and arrangement of subject matter; teach- 
ing methods, lecture, textbook, development, recitation; assignment 
of lessons, questioning, practice: and classroom management. 

{h) Agriculture in the high school: A study of the purposes of 
vocational agriculture, organization and presentation of subject 
matter, textbooks, and home jn-oject and extension activities of the 
high school. A one-da}' excursion is a part of the course. 

{e) Principles of method: A detailed study of the principles un- 
derlying method with s|)ecial reference to the teaching of vocational 
agriculture and home economics. Topics considered: The aims of 
education; education as essentially a dynamic process, illustrated in 
growth changes, hereditary expression, habit formation, play and 
manual activities, and in the expendittire of energy; the laws of 
learning, particularly those related to the organization of ideas; 
the functicm and structure of subject matter: the principles under- 
h'ing various school practices, for instance, the project; interest in 
relation to learning; the basis for the organization of knowledge; 
the tests of teaching methods; how we think. 

{d) Administration and supervision of agricultural education: 
This course treats: Administrative phases of agricultural education 
of secondar}' and college grade; Fe(leral acts relating to agricultural 
education; comparative stud}' of types of schools of agriculture; 
State systems of supervision. Visits to schools in New York and 
adjacent States is a recpiired i)art of the course. 

During the summer school, wiiich extended from duly S to August 
IG, 1918, the following additional courses were offered: 

{(i) Agriculture in the high school: A course for consideration of 
curricula, courses of study, school plot, home project, extension 
work, and the preparation of material as they relate to secondary 
scliDol conditions. The work will be planned for those who have 
had technical preparation in agrictdture. Lectui-es may bt> taken 
without laboratory work by special i)ermission. 

{b) Organization of college departments of agricultural e<hica- 
tion : This course is designed for tho.se preparing for teaching train- 
ing work in college departments of agricultural education. It deals 
with the study of agi'i<nl(ural college and high school curricula in 






I 



TRAINING TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 89 

aoTiculture with respect to the technical preparation of teacliers of 
secondary agriculture, and the professional needs of the high school 
teacher of agriculture, practice teaching, graduate needs to be met 
by such departments, and the content of special methods course in 
agricultural education. 

(c) Administration and supervision of vocational agriculture: 
This course is designed especially to meet the needs of State direc- 
tors of agricultural education. The Smith-Hughes Act is used as 
a basis for the work. Topics receiving consideration are: Types 
of schools, plans for supervision, preparation of teachers, supervision 
of home-project work, curricula, and courses of study. Visitation 
of schools is a required part of the course. In addition to the in- 
struction by members of the department, lectures will be given by 
several State directors. L. S. Hawkins, assistant director of the Fed- 
eral Board for Vocational Education, will give the lectures for one 
week. 

{d) The social and vocational aspects of education: A course de- 
signed to give students certain fundamental points of Adew in the 
interpretation of educational problems. Emphasis will be placed 
upon the changing social and vocational demands made upon the 
school and the initiative the school should take to better social and 
vocational conditions. The purpose is to acquire a workable point 
of view for social progress and to study its applications with special 
reference to education in a democracy. 

Emergency courses in agriculture. — Due to the lack of trained 
teachers to take hold of vocational departments of agriculture dur- 
ing the war period the New York State College of Agriculture, at 
the request of the State department of education, offered emergency 
courses for the preparation of these teachers for a period of nine 
weeks, beginning July 29, 1.918. These courses under the direction 
of the department of rural education, covered the following sub- 
jects: Farm shop, soils and fertilizers, dairy industry, poultry hus- 
bandry^, animal husbandry, general fruit growing, agriculture in the 
liigh schools, farm management, and farm crops. Each of these 
subjects was taken up from the point of view and with regard to 
the needs of teachers of agriculture in the high school. 

From August 5 to August 10 a conference of all agricultural in- 
structors in the New York schools of agriculture, mechanic arts, and 
home making was held at the college. 

Students. — During the school year 1916-17, 43 men and 4 women 
were registered in the regular college course in agricultural educa- 
tion. In 1916, 82 of the agricultural students who graduated had 
taken special training courses; 35 of these students secured positions 
as teachers. 



90 DEVELOPMKNT OK AGRUTLTrRAL INSTRUCTION. 



< 



DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION: AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL 

COLLEGE OF TEXAS. 

Organhation and scope. — As all teacher training in the collego 
is under the direction of this department, it inehules jjeneral train- 
'u\<f in education as well as sper-ial work in agriculturul education. 
'J'he chief efforts of the department are centered upon training 
teachei-s of vocational agriculture for the secondary schools of the 
State and in aiding those teachers in service. The latter work con- 
sists chieHy of visiting the schools and furnishing direct aid thereby, 
in contiucting extension classes where teachers may he hrouglit to- 
gether for regular courses, and in furnishing illustrative material 
in the way of charts, slides, and exhibits. 

Teaching facilities. — The department occupies three rooms in a 
new modern building. One room is a model laboratory in which are 
exiiibited and demon.strated desirable forms of eipiipment for teach- 
ing the various courses in the high school. Laboratory materials are 
also on display with suggestions as to their preparation and use. 
Another room is equipped as a laboratory for the preparation of 
ilhistrative materials. Various charts and mimeographed materials 
are prepared, lantern slides made and colored, and various photo- 
grai)hs and other pictures prepared for use in visual instruction. 
The department library t^ontains the newest books and bulletins on 
agriculture suited to secondary schools as well as works on educa- 
tion. 

In addition to three regular members of the staff, a professor of ag- 
ricultural education and two associate profes.sors of agricultural 
education, two student assistants are employed in the department. 

Coue.ses of studij. — Two four-year college curricula are offered: 
ihw leading to the degree B. 8. in agricultural education, and the 
oilier to a B, S. in agriculture. The two curricida are nearly alike in 
the Hr.st two years and may differ but little in the two uppear years, 
the difference depending upon the courses the student may elect. Six 
hours of electives are left o])en in each .semester of the junior and 
senior year of the first named curriculum, while half of the optional 

' credits must be in either agriculture or agriciiituial e(hicatioii in the 

' agricultural curriculum. 

1 lie department offers the usual courses in the following sultjects: 
Kducational psychology, methods and teaching, schools administra- 
tion, high school problems, and vocatiomil education. The special 
courses in agricultural eilucation are described in the catalogue as 
follows : 

.Xtliiiiiiislrutlon of hlKh-scliool ii^rlcMiltiire: TIiIh otnirse Is a study of ilie 
s|ii'(ilic |inil)lriiis tli:il imilroiit. Hit' tciicluT In fiur.viii;; on tin' wnrU <>r tlu* 
ilcp.irliiu'iil of muiIlwIUhc in lln- bi;,'li school. Aniinig the topics dis. ^l>.s^>^l are: 



TRAINING TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 91 

The selection of subject matter suited to local conditions; asriculture in the 
cun-icuhun ; l!il)orator.v, field, and home exercises; visual instruction; super- 
vision of home projects; laljoratory and library etiuipment ; use and manage- 
ment of school farm, and connuunity or extension work. The laboratory 
period will be used for the preparation of teaching material, and for working 
out individual assignments coiuiected with the work. Text: Materials and 
Methods in High School Agriculture, by Hummel. 

Rural education : The priuiai-y purpose of this course is to make a study of 
rural education in its broad sense, witli a view of preparing teachers and ex- 
tension workers for more efficient service in rural comnuuiitles. Some of the 
topics discussed are : Changes in rural education and the rural home, to- 
gether with the factors effecting such changes ; the school as a connnuidty 
center ; other ageucies to be coordinated ; connuunity play and recreation, and 
the redirecteil rural school. Text : Rural I^ife and Education, by Cubbei-ly. 

Agricultural extension, and demonstration : This course is intended to give 
a survey of the whole field of extension in agriculture and home economics 
and to give practice that will prepare for actual field work. Among the topics 
discussed are: Evolution of extension in agriculture and home economics, 
general organization for extension, methods of extension, farm demonstration 
work, junior agricultural clubs, extension by experts, extension by railmads and 
connnercial companies, and the training of extension workers. 

Teaching: The purpose of this course is to give opportunity for stud-ents to 
get actual experience in teaching secondary agriculture under supervision. 
Lesson plans must be submitted by the student and approved by the critic 
teacher in advance of the lesson. The teaching methods and results of the 
student will be discussed in special conferences. Provision will be made for 
classes on the campus and near-tiy high schools. Application for this course 
must be made at least three months in advance. 

To other courses — agricultural instruction and agricultural ex- 
tension and demonstration — are modifications of courses described 
in the latter course. The student is expected to do some extension 
work as a part of the course. 

In addition to other work ojffered in the summer session, a rural 
life school is conducted for six weeks. Courses which do not involve 
college credit are given in agriculture, rural education, rural sociology', 
and rural economics. These courses include modified forms of reirii- 
lar college courses intended for the training of high-school teachers 
of agriculture. A rural life conference, including a rural pastor's 
conference and a rural school conference, is held for one week. 

During the summer of 1918, from June 3 to July 13, special courses 
were offered for teachers of vocational agriculture. These courses, 
which were arranged in conference with those in charge of the 
Smith-Hughes work in the State, included : Administration of high 
scliool agriculture; elementary crop production; and market tj'pes 
of horses and swine. 

Students. — In 1916-17 120 men enrolled for agricultural education. 
In 1916 there Avere 32 graduates, 10 of whom secured positions as 
teachers of agriculture. 



i 



92 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRlCULTUrAL INSTRUCTION. 

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION: OREGON STATE AGRICULTURAL 

COLLEGE. 

Oi'f/dhi.vdh'on and scope. — The (loi)artinent of nf^ricnltural etliica- 
tion is a part of tlie scliool of vocatioiuil etliicatiun, ^vhich embraces 
also (lopartinents of education, psychology, home economics educa- 
tion, industrial education, and commercial education. The college 
is expected to confine its teacher training largely to preparingteachers 
of vocational subjects in the secondary schools. General training in 
education and ]>sychology is given, however, as a basis for the train- 
ing of tcacliei's of special vocational subjects. The function of tho 
department of agricidtural education is "to train men and women 
as teachers of agriculture in the colleges and secondary schools; to 
train extension Avorkers in agriculture; ami to develop leadership in 
rural life and education." 

Teaching facilities. — Although teachers of agriculture have had 
some special training for a number of years as a part of the work 
of the department of industrial education, the department of agri- 
cultural education has been but rccenth' organized and is not fully 
equipped. The idea in equipment is not to have elaborate equip- 
ment but to train teachers with such equipment and facilities as 
•will be within their reach in secondary schools. A combination 
laboratory and classroom is being equipped with such illustrative 
and reference material and laboratory apparatus as should be used 
in a department of vocational agriculture in a high school. 

The department of agriculture in the local high school is in 
charge of an instructor in agricultural education of the college. 
This department is used for ])ractice teaching with the instructor 
acting as criti(; teacher. 

Courses of studij. — Students i)reparing to teach agriculture in the 
secondary schools register in the school of agriculture, taking the 
prescribed work for all agricultural students in the first two years. 
]n the last two years instead of specializing in some branch of 
agriculture the work is lai-gely prescribed to round out a more gen- 
eral training in agriculture and related science and to include 15 
hours of i)rofessional training. This latter training includes educa- 
tional psychology, j^rinciples of education, vocational education, 
.secondary education in agriculture, and practice teaching. 

Facilities are alTorded for si)ecial students in agricultural educa- 
tion to gi-aduates of normal and agricultural courses. In addition to 
seminars for these studi'uts and pi-actice teaching classes, tiie fol- 
lowing courses are offered : 

{a) Secouilary education in agriculture: The principles of educa- 
tion as applied to the teacliing of vocational agiii-ulture in second- 
ary schools. Aims, methods, and materials adapted to the practical 
tiaining of stinlcnts o\ »'r 14 years of age are consiiUu-ed ; including tho 



TRAINING TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 93 

organization of courses, the collection and use of illustrative and ref- 
erence materials, and the various pluises of classroom and laboratory 
instruction. 

(b) Seminar agricultural education: A discussion of special prob- 
lems in the teaching of agriculture and in the administration of 
agricultural education Avhich will be brought out in an effort to keep 
in touch with the progress of this phase of education. The seminar 
includes also a critical review of the current literature of the subject. 

(c) Educational resources of the rural community: The special 
aim of this course is to prejiare teachers for broader social service. 
The rural school, the farmhouse, the country church, farmers' or- 
ganizations, and other agencies for rural progress will be considered 
with a view of Avorking toward a better correlation and a greater 
cooperation in effort for rural development. Special attention will 
be given the rural school as a communit}^ center. 

(d) I'^iXtension methods in agriculture: The history, organization, 
and methods of county agricultural agent work; lectures, assigned 
readings and practice in news Avriting, outlining program of work, 
drawing projects, chart making, conducting meetings, etc. 

(e) Agriculture and general science for teachers : The aims, ma- 
terials, and methods in general agriculture and general science 
wdth organization of courses for secondary schools. Special at- 
tention to supervision of productive projects to meet emergency 
needs. 

(/) Elementary education in agriculture: The aims, materials, 
and methods of prevocational and educational agriculture in the 
elementary schools, the relation to nature study and the boys' and 
girls' club work. Special attention given to school and home gardens 
and such projects as poultry and rabbits. 

The last-named course is given in the summer session and to 
teachers and supervisors in the elementary schools at Portland. 
Courses for the training of vocational teachers are also offered at 
Portland. Secondary education in agriculture is given as an exten- 
sion course in the itinerant training of teachers of agriculture in 
serA^ice by the head of the department wdio serves also as supervisor 
of agricultural education in the State. 

/Students.— In 191G-1T, 14 men Avere registered in the department 
of industrial education. In 191G there were 12 graduates, all of 
whom secured positions as teachers. 

PRACTICAL PHASES OF TRAINING. 

The demand to place agricidtural instruction upon a more practi- 
cal basis and the standardization of vocational agriculture through 
Federal and State control are calling for the more practical train- 



94 DEVELOPMISNT OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUC^TION". 

ing of teachers. The practical training as now given may be classi- 
Heil as follows: (1) Practice in agriiujltiire; (2) practice in teaching; 
and (8) ])ractice in tlie preparation and use of teaching materials. 

Practice in agriculture. — In most of the colleges tlie prohk'm of 
Ml!! king the agricultural training practical is considered a problem 
tor the various agricultural departments. Departments of agricul- 
tural education take the men with the training as they have received 
it in the various phases of agriculture. In some cases, however, as 
this training is not sulHciently practical to enable the prospective 
teachers to direct vocational work, the departments of agricultural 
education have been obliged to secure new courses of a practical 
nature or to bring about a reorganization of courses as given. 
Although most of the States have required two years of farm ex- 
perience for teachers of vocational agriculture, it is found necessary 
to supplement this and round it out in the training course to mi'et 
their needs as teachers. Some States are using teacher training 
fnnds to give practical shopwork to prospective teachers. Other States 
find it essential to have pix^spective teachers, directors, and super- 
visors of productive farm projects carry out such projects themselves 
in much the same manner as they will expect of their students. Con- 
ducting practical farm projects on the college farm has been a fea- 
ture of several of the emergency teacher training courseij. It is 
possible that it may become a permanent feature of regular courses 
for teachers of vocational agriculture. It seems reasonable that the 
prospective teacher should secure some of his practical training in 
agriculture in the light of a need which differs from the specialist or 
scientist or even from the student who returns to the farm. 

Fractloe in teaching. — Securing suitable practice in teaching is 
admitted to be one of the most difficult and exi)ensive of all forms 
of teacher training. It is presenting many new difficulties to depart- 
ments that train teachers of vocational agriculture. Some of the 
agricultural colleges offer vocational courses of secondary grade 
and in some cases students in agricultural education secure practice 
in teaching the students in such courses. The chief objection to 
such practice is that it is secured under conditions widely variant 
from the ordinary secondary stiiool. The students are older as a 
rule and the methods used in teaching them are too often the same 
methods used in teaching regular college students. As a rule the 
equipment is the same as used for college students. It is often diffi- 
cult to secure cooperation wherein such practice may be supervised 
by those trained in education instead of by those trained in some 
special phase of agricultun-. In some cases the students do not 
even get this kind of practice If they secure any practice at all it 
is in the nature of moot classes of their fellow students. 



TRAINIITG TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 95 

Some of the colleges depend upon local high schools to secure 
])riU'tice for their students. Under some conditions this plan works 
well. Wliere one school is used for a large number of students, 
abnormal conditions arise and the plan does not work well. 

One of the best plans yet observed is the placing of prospective 
teachers in agricultural departments of rural high school as appren- 
tice teachers for a period of several months. As the local teacher 
acts as critic teacher, the plan is limited bj' the number of schools 
available in which teachers are in charge who are qualified to direct 
the work of a teacher in training. It is necessary to give the work 
careful general supervision, which means close cooperation between 
those in charge of teacher training and those in charge of the agri- 
cultural instruction in the schools. As the student may be called 
upon to give up all other tasks for a whole semester, the work must 
involve sufficient credit or monetarj'^ compensation to induce students 
to take it. In New York some compensation is given such teachers 
in training. It will be seen that the expense of such a plan puts 
limitations upon it. In the future, perhaps, it will be desirable to 
put limitations on teacher training and at the same time to make the 
work more thorough. This plan promises much for the future. 

Fractwe in the frcparation and use of teaching materials. — Many 
of the special courses in agricultural education call for laboratory 
work as well as practice teaching. It has been interesting to note 
that some of the older men in charge of the work who went into 
agricultural education from other lines of teaching have not known 
what to do with laboratory periods, while many of the men who have 
had actual contact with the problems of making the work practical 
in secondary schools have not had sufficient time for all of the prac- 
tical training they desire to give their students. Although the 
extent and nature of the work done depends much upon the 
equipment and organization, as well as the aims of the various 
departments, most of the instruction will fit into the following 
groups : 

I. Preparing illustrative and laboratory uiateriaL 

1. Use of a camera. 

2. Use of a stereopticon. 

3. Making lantern slides. 

4. (Jollecting and mounting pictures. 

5. Chart making. 

G. Collecting and mounting insects and other small animalf 

7. Collecting and mounting plants. 

8. Preparing exhibits and collecting laboratory materials. 
II. Use of reference material. 

1. Making collections of bulletins, etc. 

2. Classifying and cataloging reference material. 

3. Making, mounting, and indexing clippings. 



I 



96 PKVIXOPMKNT or AOniCl'LTrRAT. INSTRUCTION. 

HI. « »ii,';iiiiz;ilii>ii (if sulijfit inatti-r. 

1. Wdiklii;,' mit curricula und courses of study. 

12. rrcpaialion iif lo.ss(»n oullint's nntl study uullines for luojects. 

[\. rrcpiiriuf? forms for records. 

4. riaiiiiiuK practicuuis and Held Iriiis. 

5. rrt'paration of survey outlines. 
IV. I'laiiniuK and making equipment. 

1. Itrawinji plans of classroom, laboratory, sl)ops, etc. 

2. I'lannin^ e(iuipment for classroom and laboratory'. 

3. Makinj; siniiile equipment and teacbing devices. 

V. Couductiug practical exercises as adapted to secondary students. 

The natiiro and extent of the hi.^t-nanied. frroiip of activities de- 
l)end cliiefly ui)()n opportunities alForiU'd the students for suitable 
practical work in tlieir agricultural courses and the opportunities 
for carryin<^ out practicunis and field trips in connection with prac- 
tice teaching. In some cases, even where the students secure practice 
of a technical nature in connection Avith their agricultural courses, 
practicunis are planned and conducted in the training class as they 
would be handled for secondary students. Such work includes: 
Judging farm animals, judging farm products, testing seed, testing 
soil for acidity, use of the Babcock test, testing and preserving eggs, 
and such practical and simple exerci.ses as fit well into tlie work of 
a secondary school. 

Agcnch's for the advancement of ayiitidtural education. — Many 
of tlie larger educational and scientific institutions and societies have 
been concerned for a number of years with problems of agricultural 
ediuation as thej' relate to tlie general problems of education and 
agricidture with wliich these bodies deal. Chief among the national 
bodies may be mentioned the National Education Association and 
the American Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment 
Stations. Scarcely a year passes in whicli these bodies do not con- 
sider some phase of agriculture in the secondary schools. Regic^nal 
and State teachers' associations very often find time on tlieir j)ro- 
grams and place in their reports for consideration of problems deal- 
ing with teaching agriculture in the high schools. It has been only 
witliin the last four or live years, iiowever, that the problems of 
agriculture in the secondary schools have been given special con- 
sideration. Such special attention lias been given chiefly by the fol- 
lowing agencies : 

1. I)ivi.sion of agricuilural instruction. United States Department 
of Agriculture: In 1903 the Oflice of Experiment Stations of the 
United States Dc|)artment of Agiiculture received an appropriation 
for farmer.s' institutes and agricidtural in.struction in tlie following 
terms: 

To enable tlie .S('<-relnry of Aurlc\dtiire to Investi^'ate and report upon the 
organization and progress of Jarmers' Institutes and agricultural schools In 



I 



TRAINING TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 97 

the several States and Territories and upon similar organizations In foreign 
countries, with special suggestions of plans and methods for malting such 
organizations more effective foi- the dissemination of the results of the work 
of the Department of Agriculture and the agricultural experiment stations, 
and of improved methods of agricultural practice, including the employment 
of labor In the city of Washington and elsewhere and all necessary expenses, 
$20,600. 

For a number of years work of a general nature, much of it propa- 
ganda for the development of agricultural education and farmers' 
institutes, was carried on by specialists in those two lines. Although 
the work has continued ever since with the same appropriation and 
the same authorization, its nature has been changed as the work to 
do became more specific and specialized. In 1914 a man was cm- 
ployed to give his entire time to the work of the secondary schools. 
This work is mostly along two lines: (1) Investigating the methods 
of organization and teaching in the schools; (2) organizing the 
information secured in the Department of Agriculture and the ex- 
periment stations for teaching purposes. Methods gleaned from 
the study of schools are suggested in connection with the materials 
organized for teaching. This material is sent out in the form of 
bulletins and documents. For two years the Agricultural Educa- 
tion Monthly served as a medium for reaching teachers of agricul- 
ture. Sets of lantern slides are prepared and loaned to teachers 
with lecture syllabi. 

2 United States Bureau of Education: The Federal Bureau of 
Education for several j'^ears has considered aid to teachers of agricul- 
ture as one of its functions, but owing to limited funds it has been 
necessary to restrict its efforts to a few lines. A specialist in agri- 
cultural education has been employed for the past three years. Much 
of his time has been devoted to investigations concerning higher edu- 
cation in agriculture and the coordination of the whole program of 
agricultural instruction. The bureau has cooperated with the De- 
partment of Agriculture and other agencies in making investigations 
and has published a number of bulletins reporting the results of 
investigations and the proceedings of educational societies dealing 
with agriculture in secondary schools. 

3. Conferences on agricultural education: Under the auspices of 
the Department of Agriculture and the Bureau of Education a 
number of regional conferences have been held, in which specific 
problems relating to the teaching of agriculture in secondary schools 
were discussed. As those attending the conferences were mostly 
engaged in the colleges as jjrofessors of agricultural education, or 
in State departments of education as supervisors of agriculture, the 
problems discussed pertained chiefly to training teachers and to the 
organization and direction of courses of study in the secondary 
154070'— 20 7 



98 



DEVELOPMENT OF AGRiriTLTTrRAL rNSTRUCTION. 



Schools. The reports of these conferonres, though not published for 
general distribution, were made available to th<ise innnediately 
interested. 

4. The American Association for the Advancement of Agricultural 
Teaching: This association was organized in 1909 for the purpose, 
as stated in its constitution, " to promote the teaching of agriculture 
and to devise ways and means of increasing the efficiency of such 
instruction in elementary and secondary schools and in colleges and 
universities." Vp to the present time the association has given most 
of its time to problems relating to secondary agriculture. Some of 
the proceedings of its meetings and reports of its communities have 
been published by the Department of Agriculture and the Bureau of 
Education. The committee on the use of land by high schools teach- 
ing agriculture has done a good deal to develop a rational use of the 
school farm and to promote the home-project plan. 

5. Federal Board for Vocational Education : In addition to the 
general administration of vocational agriculture, as subsidized with 
Federal funds, the Smith-Hughes Act charges the Federal Board for 
Vocational Education — 

to make or cause to have made studies, lnvestlgntlons, and reporta. with particu- 
lar reference to their use in aiding the States in the establishment of vocational 
schools and classes and In giving Instruction In agriculture, etc. * • ♦ 

When the board deems it advisable, such studies and investigations concerning 
agriculture for the purposes of agricultural education may be made in co- 
operation with or through the Department of Agriculture. Such studies, in- 
vestigations, and reports concerning the administration of vocational schools, 
courses of study, ar.d instruction in vocational subjects may be made in co- 
operation with or through the Bureau of Education. 

Inasmuch as the work of the Federal board is directly connected 
with the schools and that it has both authorization and funds for 
aiding the teaching of agriculture and other vocational schools in a 
direct way, it looks as if the governmental aid for this phase of teach- 
ing w^ould center largely around the work of that board. Plans for 
cooperation with both the Department of Agi-iculture and the 
Bureau of Education have been made. These departments will do 
investigational work connected with the teaching and administration 
of agriculture in the secondary schools under the direction of the 
Federal board. i 

6. General ngeiicies: Of the general agencies interested in agri- 
cultural education the most important at present are the National 
Education Association and the National Society for \"ocational 
Education. At the present time a committee on agricultural educa- 
tion is working in connection with the commission on the reorgani- 
zation of secondary education of the National Education Asso- 
ciation on a report which promises to be not a reorganization but a 



TRAINING TEACHERS OF AGRICULTURE. 99 

primary organization of secondary agriculture, as this branch of sec- 
ondary education has never been really organized. The National 
Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education gave some at- 
tention to agricultural education. Now that this society has broad- 
ened its field and changed its name to the National Society for Voca- 
tional Education, it promises to give a great deal more attention to 
the problems of vocational agriculture in secondary schoolflb 



Chapter VI. 
SUMMARY OF STUDY. 



RELATION OF SECONDARY TO COLLEGIATE AGRICULTURE. 

It is not easy to draw a distinct line between agriculture na 
taught in the elementary and secondary schools and the colleges. Aa 
the teaching of agriculture was developed in the college, it is reason- 
able to assume that, in its early development, it was of an elemen- 
tary nature. It has only been in recent years that the land-grant 
colleges have raised their agi'icultural instruction to college grade; 
even now much of the instruction of the colleges for Negroes and 
some of the other institutions is of a secondary grade. Many of 
the secondarj' schools are doing work in agriculture to-day more ad- 
vanced than most of the colleges were doing a few years ago. The 
nature of the subject will always present dilliculties in drawing 
lines between agriculture suited for the elementary schools, the sec- 
ondary schools, and the colleges. The present-day tendency appears 
to be to consider elementary instruction of a general prevocational 
nature the work of the elementary schools and the junior high 
schools, and the work of the agricultunil colleges largely the training 
of scientists and specialists, leaving to secondary schools and de- 
partments a large share of the vocational training of farmers. 

KIND OF SCHOOLS. 

As the teaching of agriculture was extended beyond the collegea, 
it was assumed appaieiitly that schools of agriculture should be es- 
tal)lished with land and equii)ment for practical instruction at the 
school. Many of the agricultural schools established have not been 
real agricultural schools. In some cases agricultural departments 
have been more successful In teaching agriculture than the so-called 
agricultural schools. The question has arisen &s to whether agricul- 
ture should be taught in the ordinary high school or in special 
schools of agriculture. From the study the author has made it 
would seem that there is place for instruction in agriculture in every 
high school serving a fanning community, if the school is prepared 
to give the proper training to future farmers. There is also a place 
for a limited number of agricultural schools of secondary grade. 
The majority of students should receive their agricultural training in 
100 



I 



SUMMARY OF STUDY. 101 

the public high school while living at home on the farm. The stu- 
dents who are not served by local high schools and tlie more ma- 
ture students who wish more intensive training in agriculture the 
agricultural schools will aid the colleges in training. 

PROBLEMS OF VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE. 

The practical training of farmers as undertaken by the schools 
presents many new problems. While we may agree that vocational 
agriculture means the training of farmers, we do not know what 
the schools may do, and just how they may do it, in giving that 
training. We may learn something from the experience of the agri- 
cultural colleges, but their work has been in most cases better 
adapted to the training of scientists than farmers. High-school 
instruction has suffered from the college instruction which has in 
too many cases been taken over without adaptation to secondary 
students. Some of the secondary schools have taken long steps in 
the direction of solving some of the problems presented. A survey 
of what these schools have accomplished should be helpful before 
new studies are attempted. The author has had opportunity to 
study a large number of schools teaching agriculture. The chief 
problems studies are summarized in the following paragraphs: 

TJse of land. — Placing agricultural instruction upon a vocational 
basis means making the work practical. Practice in agriculture 
involves the use of land. Whether the school should own a farm or 
not is still a question much discussed. Some of the schools visited 
have used their school farms effectively in giving practical training. 
Others have been more successful in connecting the training given 
at the school with practice secured at home through the home- 
project plan. Other schools have used both the school farm and 
the home-project plan. It would seem from the study made that 
there is a place for both, if properly plnnned, directed, and adapted 
to educational needs. As a rule the home-project plan works best 
in agricultural departments of high schools where the students are 
living at home upon farms near the school. School farms are most 
needed in connection with agricultural schools where the students 
are living at the school, away from home. 

Utilizmg community resources. — In vocational training in agri- 
culture there is a tendenc}^ to get away from technical laboratory 
training and to make the shop and the farm the laboratory of the 
school. Some of the schools doing most effective work not only 
use the home farms and the school land for practical training, but 
also use neighboring farms in the community. In fact, they look 
w\)on the entire community as the laboratory of the school lind use 
all its resources as far as possible for teaching purposes. This 
attitude is exemplified in the Wisconsin normal school described, 



102 DEVELOPMENT OF AORICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 

which, instead of invcstin*^ in live stock and equipment for their 
school farms, invested in auto trucks with which to take classes 
into the community for field instruction. 

Methods of liistrvctiov. — Vocational trainin*^ in agriculture is in- 
troducing new problems in teacliing. Not that new principles are 
involved, but that new applications must be made. The lecture 
method and technical laboratory methods evolved in the college 
do not function any better in teaching secondary agriculture than 
they do in teaching other phases of science in the high school. Text- 
book methoils and laboratory training considered successful in 
science teaching in the high school need considerable adaptation in 
their application to vocational training in agriculture. The most 
successful schools based their school instruction upon practical 
farm projects and constructive work in the field and shop. Teachers 
were supervisors and directors of training as well as instructors. 
Classroom instruction of a nature less formal than academic in- 
struction in the high school seems to meet the needs of instruction 
related to practical work. Individual project study means supervised 
study. The teacher in the classroom continues as a director and 
leader as he is out of doors, for a part of the time directing in- 
dividual study and planning of work and then acting as leader 
in a round-table discussion of problems and principles of general 
interest and application. 

Organization of subject matter. — The curricula and courses of 
study in operation in the various schools and suggested in the State 
plans show that general standards are not established. As a rule, 
where States have attempted to standardize the work by prescribing 
curricula and definite courses of study, the work has not been entirely 
satisfactory. Various sections of most of the States differ so widely 
in their agricultural needs and educational resources that standard- 
ized courses are a handicap unless they offer considerable leeway in 
their choice of subject matter and its application. The most suc- 
cessful courses noted were those adapted best to the interests of 
particular classes of students and to the needs of the community in 
which they live. It should be possible to bring vocational agricultiiro 
to a high standard in regard to the quantity and character of the 
work done without specifying the subjects to be taught. 

Equipment. — What has been stated in regard to standardisation 
of coursers applies in a largo measure to equipment. The two go to- 
gether t*) a great extent. Some States have made little attempt to 
8tan<lardize courses and methods of instruction, but have spevified 
equipment in detail. In some cases it would seem that the courses of 
study and methods were made to fit the equipment, instead of the 
ef|ui])nient selected as it was needed in teaching. As long ns the 
idea prevailed that practical agriculture could be taught in the 



SUMMARY OF STUDY. 103 

laboratory or that a school farm is essential to practical training, ex- 
tensive and expensive ec^uipment seemed inevitable in a plan for 
agricultural training. The home-project plan and a wider use of 
community resources have reduced the need for equipment greatly. 
As the work is made more practical there is a tendency to equip shops 
and workrooms rather than laboratories. Incubators, pruning tools, 
hotbed sash, and spraying outfits are apt to be considered more 
essential than microscopes, glassware, and soil tubes. In some of 
the schools doing excellent work little expensive equipment was 
found. The success of the work depended upon the ability and re- 
sourcefulness of the teacher, who, with his students, gathered about 
him inexpensive teaching material, and who used the home farms and 
the resources of the community to a great extent. A good teacher 
may overcome the handicap of poor equipment, while a poor teacher 
has difficulty in making good with the best equipment available. 

SUBSIDIZING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 

Accomplishments of State aid. — Vocational training in agriculture 
means a form of training more expensive than instruction in academic 
subjects. Even where no farm is used by the school, antl equipment 
is maintained at a minimum, the cost is high because a highly trained, 
high-priced man must be employed to supervise and direct the work 
of relatively few pupils. The home-project method may be inex- 
pensive as far as equipment is concerned but expensive for instruc- 
tion and supervision, as one man can supervise but a few pupils. 
Realizing the importance of agricultural training and considering 
its cost, the majority of the States had provided, in some way, to 
encourage and support the work with State subsidy. While much 
of the money was misspent, because rational plans were not made 
and adequate supervision and inspection provided, most of the agri- 
cultural instruction worthy of consideration as a special branch of 
education was developed up to 1917 under the stimulus of State aid. 
It is to the success of State-aided agricultural instruction that we 
must accredit Federal aid for that work. 

State systems as models. — It was the States which provided dis- 
tinctly for vocational agriculture and made provision for supervision 
that the work might be carried out upon a distinctly vocational basis 
that contributed most to a national plan for vocational agricultural 
education. In this study considerable attention has been given the 
work done in Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, 
and Indiana, because it was upon the work accomplished in these 
States that the Federal act for vocational education was modeled to 
a great extent. The chief purpose of the Smith-Hughes Act was 
to stimulate other States to provide for vocational education, includ- 
ing agriculture, as the above-mentioned States had done. We may 



104 DEVFJ.OP^rENT OF AnRTrXTT.TIT^AT. INSTRUCTION, 

continue to study what has been done in these States with profit, 
because they have had severeal 3'ears' start in working out problems. 
The author has received many su<]j<^estions from visitinu schools in 
New York and Ma,ssachusetts which have been helpful to other 
States. The home-project plan and practical use of school land 
have been worked out well in some of the schools and departments 
in those States. The problem before us now is to adapt methods 
worked out for conditions in those States to meet conditions as found 
in other sections. 

The granting of Federal aid undoubtedly means a new epoch for 
agriculture in the secondary schools, not only because of the direct 
financial aid and the State aid which it stimulates but also for new 
policies established and new standards set. Although the matter of 
organization and administration is left largely with the States, there 
is little doubt but that the tendency is in the direction of national 
stantlards. While it is too early to determine the extent to whicli 
national standards are going to effect work already started under 
State aid, it has been considered worth while to make a study of 
the various State plans for purpose of comparison. 

For the present, most of the effort of the State departments of 
education is centered upon vocational agriculture as established ac- 
cording to Federal standards. The question arises as to whether 
other forms of agricultural instruction in secondary and elementary 
agriculture are to be neglected. It is a question whether specialized 
vocational training in agriculture may be maintained in an extensive 
way without more attention to vitalizing the instruction in general 
agriculture. Linking instruction in general agriculture in the upper 
grades, the junior high school, and the lower grades of the high 
school with boys' and girls' club work and other home work should 
serve in an excellent way as prevocational training for agriculture. 

Although the matter of dual control has been passed up to the 
States, there are few States in which the administration of vocational 
education is not linked closely with the administration of general 
education. Inasmuch as there should be close relation between tlie 
elementary or prevocational work and vocational training, the su- 
pervision of both lines should be imder the same directi:in. 

Teacher training. — As the success of the work in the secondary 
schools depends in such a large measure upon the training of the 
teachers, the Federal funds provide for this important work. Some 
progresa had been made in developing departments of agricultural 
education before Federal aid was given through the Smith-Hughes 
Act. The Nelson amendment to the Morrill Act provided that some 
of the funds for tlu' Innd-grant coHoge could be used for training 
teachers of agriculture. The author had made some .study of teacher 
training as conducted in these colleges, and found that courses in 



SUMMARY OF STUDY. 105 

agricultural education varied from courses consisting chiefly of the 
subject matter of general agriculture to courses consisting chiefly 
of general methods in education. 

We are now in the process of developing special methods and 
means of organization in agriculture. Along with this development, 
agricultural education is being developed as a special line in the 
teaching profession. A great deal, pTobably too much, is expected 
of teachers of secondary agriculture. They are expected to know 
both the art of farming and the science of agriculture along general 
lines, as well as the art of teaching and^ the science of education. 
Departments of agricultural education are finding that this broad 
training can not all be given in the college. To secure men who 
have good prospects of succeeding in departments of vocational ag- 
riculture from the start, they are reaching out for men who have 
had either experience in forming or practice in teaching or both, 
and then rounding out their training in the college. 



' 



BIBLIOGRAPHY ON AGRTaTI.TURE IN SECONDARY 

SCHOOLS. 

I. SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE. 

Arkansas. Department of Public InstructUm. The Minnesota agricultural 
hlph schools. In its Biennial report, 1907-8, pp. 140-178. 

Association of Amekican Agricultural Colleges and Expkbiment Stations. 
Cominittee on Instruction in Agriculture. Relations of hlph school agri- 
culture to agriculture as taught In the land-grant colleges. 19th Report, 
1916. 

Crosby, D. J. Special agricultural hlph schools. In National Education Asso- 
ciation. Journal of proceedings and addresses, 1909. pp. 974-976. 

Davis, K. C. County schools of asriculture in Wisconsin, In U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. Oflice of Experiment Stations. Report, 1904. pp. 
677-686. 

Johnson, A. A. County schools of agriculture and domestic economy in Wis- 
consin. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Office of Experiment Stations, 
Bulletin 242, 1911. 

Lane, C. H. Arkansas State agricultural schools. U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture. Oflice of Experiment Stations. Bulletin No. 250. 1912. 

and Crosby, D. J. The district agricultural schools of Georgia, U. S, 

Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1916, No. 44. 

Matbcheck, W. Report of a survey made for the Milwaukee Taxpayers' 
League. Madison, Wis., Efllciency Bureau, 1916. 73 pp. 

Df^als with Milwaukee's County School of .\grlculture and Domestic Economy. 

Michigan. Department of Public Instruction. County schools of agriculture. 
In its 21st Annual report, 1908. pp. 35-42. 

Nelson, C. J, N. The best type of agricultural high school. /?i North Dakota 
Educational Association. Proceedings, vol. 28, 1914. pp, 81-84. 

Owens, O. J. Secondary agricultural education In Alabama. U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. Office of Experiment Stations. Bulletin 220, 190!». 

PuosLKY, C, W. Agricultural courses for secondary schools (Nebraska). 
Nebraska University .TournnI, vol. 8, No. 8. pp. 43—46. 

Reynolps, J. H. Agricultural high schools. In Southern Educational Associ- 
ation. Journal of proceedings and addresses, 1908. pp. 510-520. 

Smith, W. H., and others. County agricultural high schools, with course of 
study. In Mississippi Deparluient of Public Education, Bulletin 8, 1913, 
pp. 61-07. • 

Snkdden, David. riMctlral prouram for agricultural schools. Journal of Edu- 
cation, 77:733-734, 1918. 

W.\.TTA, J. F. Menominee County Agricultural S<-hool and whiit it due*. In 
MIolilgan Farmers' Institutes. Bulletin 20, 1914. pp. 821-S28. 
106 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 107 

II. HIGH SCHOOLS. 

Brown, H. A. The New Ilainpshire type of reconstructed rural high school 

Vocational Education, 3:327-337, 1914. 
The readjustment of a rural hi^h school to the needs of the community. 

U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1912, No. 20. 
Cbandall, B. R. Agriculture in the Idaho Falls High Schocd. American 

School Board Journal, 49 : 17-18, 1914. 
Lank, O. H. Agricultural Instruction in the high schools of six eastern States. 

U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1918, No. 3. 
Michigan Aqricultueal Coixege. Department of Agricultural Education. 

Report of agriculture in the high schools of Michigan. Bulletin 18, August, 

1917. 
Reports for previous years also published. 
MoNAHAN, A. C, and Phillips, Adams. The Farragut School — a Tennessee 

country life school. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1918, No. 49. 

III. NORMAL SCHOOLS. 

Abbey, M. J. Normal school instruction in agriculture. U. S. Department 
of Agriculture. OfHce of Experiment Station. Circular 90, 1909. 

Balcomb, E. B. Agriculture in normal schools : Course of instruction and finan- 
cial support. In National Education Association. Journal of proceedings 
and addresses, 1907. pp. 752-758. 

Evans, Charles, and French, W. L. The work of the normal school In pre- 
paring teachers of agriculture. In National Education Association. Jour- 
nal of proceedings and addresses, 1908, pp. 1194-1199. 

Johnson, D. B. Agriculture in normal schools. Conference for education in 
the South. Proceedings, 1910. pp. 242-250. 

Kirk, J. R. Agriculture and domestic science in normal schools with special 
reference to preparing teachers for community work. In National Edu- 
cation Association. Journal of proceedings and addresses, 1911. pp. 
1152-1156. 

Storm, A. V. The relation of the agricultural college to the State normal 
school. In National Education Association. Journal of proceedings and 
addresses, 1918. pp. 516-521. 

IV. TEACHER TRAINING. 

Associatioit of American Agrtcxtltttial Colleges and Expketmewt Stations. 
Committee on Instruction in Agriculture. Work of agricultural colleges 
In training teachers of agriculture for secondary schools. U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. Office of Experinrent Stations. Circular 118, 1913. 

Bailey, L. H. On the training of persons to teach agricultuTe in the public 
schools. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1918, No. 1. 

Book. W. F. The training and certification of teachers for agricultural Indus- 
tries and household arts subjects in the public schools of Indiana. Indiana 
Department of Public Instruction. Educational publications. Bulletin 
5. 1914. 

Oboshv. I>. .7. Training courses for teachers of agriculture. In U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. Yearbook, 1907. pp. 207-220. 



108 DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURAL IXSTRUCnON. 

Jacksow, E. R, Afrricultural tralninc courses for employed teachers. T7. S. 

I>epaitnient of Ajrrlculture. Rullotln 7, 11»13. 
Jahvis, C. D. Vocat-lonnI teachers for secondary schools: What the land-frrant 

collegrs are doing to prepare them. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 

1917, No. 38. 
National Edi'cation Assocation. Preparation of teachers for lagricultural 

education. In its Journal of proceedings and addresses, 1908. pp. 294r-312. 
Peabody Com:GB. The Seaman A. Knapp School and Farm (for the Training 

Of Teachers). Bulletin 2, toL 1, 1913. 
Texas Aguicultural and Mechanical CoLijiGE. Department of Affricultural 

Education. Agricultural education at the Agricultural and Mechanical 

OoUege of Texas. Bulletin No. 1, 191S. 
The training of teachers for agricultural instruction. Canada Agricaltural. 

Gazette, 3:916-924, 1916. 

V. ORGANIZATION AND SUPERVISION. 

Fedebax Boabd foe Vocational Education. Agricultural education: Some 
problems in State supervision. Bulletin 2<3, 1918. 

Agricultural education organization and adniini.stratlon. Bulletin 18. 

Buttekfield, K. L. a State .«!ystem of agricultural eilucatlon. In Ma-ssachu- 
•setts Agricultural College. Bulletin 8, No. 2. pp. 29-47, 1916. 

Massachusetts Board of Education. State-aided vocational agricultural edu- 
cation in 1912. Bulletin 3, 1913. 

State-aided vocational agricultural education In 1914. Bulletin 3. 1915. 

State-aided vocational agricultural education in 1915. Bulletin 5, 1916. 

Information relative to the establishment and administration of count.v 

agricultural schools and agricultural departments. Bulletin 23, 1916. 

Michigan Aobicut-toeal CJollege. Department of Agricultural Kducation. 
li^orts on agriculture In tiie high .schools of Michigan. Bulletin 8, 1912; 
bulletin 12, 1913; bulletin 13, 1914; bulletin 15, 1915; bulletin 16. 1916. • 

New York (State). Education Departvicnt. Agricultural education in sec- 
ondary scliools. Bulletin No. 624, 191G. 

Schools of agriculture, mechanic art.s, and home making. Bul- 
letins, 1910 ; No. 543, 1913 ; No. 626, 1916. 

Vocational schools. Bulletin No. 566, 1914. 



Stkwabt, J. S. Annual report of the eleventh district agricultural school 
of (Georgia. Georgia State Ck)llege of Agriculture. 

Stimson, R. W. The MRssachu.sett8 home-product plan of vocational agricul- 
tural eUucatioo. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin. 1914, No. & 

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